
-■MM:' 



>^ 







THE 



PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD 



THEIR CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES. 



CHARLES HENRY SNOW, C.E., Sc.D., 

Dean of the School of Applied Science, New York Univeysity; 
Member 0/ the American Society of Civil Engineers, etc. 



;-J 



FIRST EDITION'. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NEW YORK : 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1903. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONbRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

APR 11 1^03 

Copyiight Entry 

CLASS c^ XXo. No. 

COPY S, 



Copyright, 1903, 

BY 

CHARLES HENRY SNOW. 



sV") 



ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



•^v 



PREFACE. 



The following is a brief untechnical presentation of gen- 
eral features characterizing economically important species of 
wood. It is the result of notes originally brought together 
from many already existing sources and later augmented, and 
verified so far as possible for the present use, by personal 
observation. The work of preparation has not been as simple 
as the result would indicate, and although great care has been 
taken to check each fact, errors do no doubt exist, although 
it is not believed that there are important ones. 

Engineers while writing upon woods have, save excep- 
tionally, emphasized strength beyond most other properties. 
Other works for expert foresters or botanists are of necessity 
too special, voluminous, fragmental, or technical for the casual 
student. Some popular books on trees, as distinct from 
woods, are available. The present form is distinct from these 
and is intended for those who are not foresters or botanists, 
but who use woods or desire knowledge of their distinguishing 
properties. Allusions to trees, historical and other references, 
aside from those directly regarding woods, are made for 
completeness and in order to mark, distinguish, or separate 
the species. 

Acknowledgments are particularly due to the publications 
of the U. S. Division of Forestry, to Prof. Sargent's studies as 
set forth in Vol. IX of the Tenth U. S. Census, to Dr. B. E. 
Fernow, to Mr. Raphael G. Zon for suggestions and for tech- 
nical revision, to the NortJnvestern Lumbcrvian and other trade 



IV PREF/iCE. 

journals, to many dealers, who hav^e been uniform in their 
courtesy, and incidentally to Mr. Morris K. Jesup, whose mag- 
nificent collection of woods at the New York Museum of Natural 
History has been available to the writer as to others. These, 
with other sources of information acknowledged by the writer, 
and suggested to others, are suitably arranged in the following 
list. Of the I 55 illustrations, 138 are original, the drawings 
having been prepared under the supervision of the writer from 
actual specimens by Mr. Irving T. VVorthly of Cornell Uni- 
versity and several students of New York University, and the 
photographs by Mr. John Hopfengartner, Jr., of Westchester, 
New York City. Other illustrations are, so far as possible, 
acknowledged in place. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Section I. Wood. Definitions. "Structure." Weights. Coefficients. Uses. 

Botanical and Common Nomenclatures. General Information, etc i 

PART II. 
EXOGENOUS SERIES. 

Section 2. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Annual Rings. Medullary or 
Pith Rays. Pith Cavities. Sapwood and Heartwood. Cross, Radial 
and Tangential Distinctions. " Quarter Sawn " Surfaces. Common and 
Botanical Subdivisions, etc 7 

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS. 

Section 3. Distribution. Distinguishing Characteristics. General Informa- 
tion, etc 10 

Oak (Quercus). 
Section 4. Distribution. Historical. Structural and Physical Properties of 

Wood. Commercial Divisions. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. ii 

a. White Oak (Quercus alba) 1-7 

b. Cow Oak (Quercus michauxii) 14 

c. Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus) i e 

d. Post Oak (Quercus minor) 16 

e. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) 17 

/. White Oak (Quercus garryana) 18 

g. Red Oak (Quercus rubra) iq 

h. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) 20 

/. Spanish Oak (Quercus digitata) 21 

j. Black Oak (Quercus velutina) 22 

k. Live Oak (Quercus virens) 2'' 

/. California Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia 24 

V 



vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

FACE 

m. Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis) 25 

n. English Oak (Quercus robur var. pedunculata) 26 

Ash (Fraxinus). 
Section 5. Distribution. Historical. General Properties. Commercial Di- 
visions. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 27 

a. White Ash (Fraxinus americana) 29 

i. Red Ash (Fraxinus pubescens) 30 

c. Blue Ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata) 31 

</. Black Asli (F>axinus nigra) 32 

e. Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis) 33 

/. Oregon Ash (Fraxinus oregona) 34 

Elm (Ulmus). 
Section 6. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. 

Landscape Value of Trees, etc 35 

(/. White Elm (Ulmus americana) 36 

d. Cork Elm (Ulmus racemosa) 37 

c. Slippery Elm, Red Elm (Ulmus pubescens) 38 

d. Wing Elm (Ulmus alata) 39 

Maple (Acer). 
Section 7. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. Uses. 

Maple Sugar. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 40 

a. Sugar Maple, Hard Maple (Acer saccharum) 42 

d. Silver Maple, Soft Maple (Acer saccharinum) 43 

c. Red Maple, Swamp Maple (Acer rubrum) 44 

(f. Oregon Maple (Acer macrophyllum) 45 

e. Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple (Acer negundo) 46 

Walnut (Juglans). 
Section 8. Historical. Black Walnut in Gun Stocks. Structural and Physi- 
cal Properties of Woods. Burl. White Walnut. English Walnut. Bo- 
tanical Characteristics of Trees, etc _. 47 

a. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) 49 

l>. White Walnut, Butternut (Juglans cinerea) 50 

Hickory (Hicoria). 
Section 9. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 
Uses. " Second-growth" Hickory. Pecan. Botanical Characteristics of 

Trees, etc. 51 

a. Shagbark (Hicoria ovata) 52 

fi. Pignut (Hicoria glabra) 53 

c. Mocker Nut (Hicoria alba) , 54 

d. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) 55 

Chestnut; Chinquapin (Castanea). 
Section 10. Distribution. Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. 

Uses. Famous Trees. Nuts. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc. . 56 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii 

I'AGE 

a. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) 58 

b. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) 591 

Beech, Ironwood (Fagus) (Carpinus, Ostrya, etc.). 
Section ii. Distribution. Early Uses of Beech. Structural and Physical Prop- 
erties of Woods. Uses. Enumeration of Species Affording " Ironwood." 60 

a. Beech (Fagus atropunicea) 62 

b. Ironwood, Blue Beech (Carpinus caroliniana) 63, 

c. Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam (^Ostrya virginiana) 64- 

Sycamore (Platanus). 
Section 12. Confusion of Names. Historical, Structural and Physical Prop- 
erties of Wood. Uses. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 65 

a. Sycamore, Buttonball (Platanus occidentalis) 6(> 

b. California Sycamore (Platanus racemosa) 67 

Birch (Betula). 
Section 13. Distribution. History and Uses of Bark. Structural and 
Physical Properties of Wood. Uses of Wood. Commercial Divisions of 

Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 6S 

a. White Birch (Betula populifolia) 70 

b. Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera) 71 

c. Red Birch (Betula nigra) 72 

d. Yelknv Birch (Betula lutea) 73 

e. Sweet, Cherry Birch (Betula lenta) 74^ 

Locust; Mesquite (Robinia, Gleditsia, Prosopis). 
Section 14. Confusion of Names. Structural and Physical Properties of 
Wood. Uses. Structural Value of Black Locust. Durability and 

Peculiarities of Mesquite. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 75 

a. Black Locust, Yellow Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) 77 

b. Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) 78 

c. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) 79 

Whitewood or Tulip-tree Wood; Poplar or Cottonwood; Cucumber- 
tree Wood; Basswood (Liriodendron), (Populus), (Magnolia), (Tilia). 

Section 15. Structural Relations. Peculiarities and Uses of Wood. Con- 
fusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 80 

a. Whitewood, Tulip-tree or Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). 82 

b. Poplar, Large Tooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata 83. 

c. Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) 84 

d. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 85 

<?. Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) 86 

f. Basswood, Linden (Tilia americana) 87 

Willow (Salix). 

Section 16. Distribution. Historical. Properties and Uses of Wood. Bo- 
tanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 88- 

a. Black Willow (Salix nigra) , » 89 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Catalpa (Catalpa). 

PAGE 

Section 17. Structural Values. Properties of Woods. Botanical Character- 
istics of Trees, etc 90 

a. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa) 91 

d. Catalpa (Catalpa catalpa) 92 

Sassafras; Mulberry (Sassafras), (Morus). 

Section 18. Historical. Properties of Sassafras Wood. Properties of Mul- 
berry Wood. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 93 

a. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale) 94 

d. Mulberry, Red Mulberry (Morus rubra; 95 

Buckeye; Horse Chestnut (Aesculus). 

Section 19. Structural and Botanical Relationship. Localities. Properties 

and Uses of Wood . 96 

a. Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) 97 

d. Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra) 97 

t. Sweet Buckeye (Aesculus octandra) 98 

Gum (Liquidambar, Nyssa). 

Section 20. Botanical and Structural Relationships. General Properties and 

Uses of Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees 99 

a. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) 100 

6. Sour Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) loi 

c. Cotton Gum, Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) , 102 

Holly; Boxwood; Lignumvit/E (Ilex), (Buxus Cornus), (Guajacum), etc.). 

Section 21. Structural and Physical Properties; also Uses 01 Holly, of Box- 
wood, and of LignumvitDe Woods. Sources. Substitutes for Boxwood, 
i.e., Flowering Dogwood, Mexican Persimmon and Rose Bay. Botanical 

Characteristics of Trees, etc 103 

a. Holly (Ilex opaca) 105 

6. Dogwood (Cornus florida) 106 

c. Lignumvitse (Guajacum sanctum) 107 

Laurel (Magnolia, Rhododendron, Arbutus, etc.). 

Section 22. Application of Name Laurel. Structural Peculiarities and Uses 

of Several Products 108 

a. Mountain Laurel (Umbellularia californica) I09 

i. Madrona (Arbutus menziesii) HO 

Persimmon; Osage Orange; Cherry (Diospyros), (Madura), (Prunus). 

Section 23. Range. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Persimmon Wood, 

of Osage Orange Wood, of Cherry Wood ni 

a. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) 112 

6. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) 1 1-5 

c. Cherry (Prunus serotina) ha 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix 

Teak; Greenheart (Tectona), (Nectandra). 

PAGE 

Section 24. Asiatic Teak. African Teak. Structural Peculiarities and Uses 

of Teak Wood. Structural Peculiarities and Uses of Greenheart 115 

a. Teak (Tectona grandis) 116 

d. Greenheart (Nectandra rodiali) 117 

Mahogany (Swietenia, Khuya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc.). 

Section 25. Applications of Name Mahogany. Sources of Supply. Struc- 
tural and Physical Peculiarities. Also Uses of Wood, Veneers, Spanish 

Cedar, White Mahogany 118 

a. Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) 120 

d. White Mahogany (Tabeuia Donnell-Smithii) 121 

c. Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar (Cedrela odorata) 122 

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). 

Section 26. Localities. Common Names. Great Size. Rapid Growth and 
Sanitary Properties of Trees. Structural Properties of Jarrah, Karri 

and Tuart Woods. Botanical Characteristics of Trees, etc 123 

a. Jarrah (Eucaljrptus marginata) 125 

d. Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) 126 

c. Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) 127 

d. Blue Gum, Fever Tree (Eucalyptus globulus) 128 

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFT WOODS, 



Section 27. Localities. Historical. Structural and Physical Properties. 
Uses. Botanical Characteristics. General Information 



129 



130 



Pine (Pinus). 
Section 28. Structural and Physical Properties. Uses. Botanical Char- 
acteristics 

So/^ Pine. — Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Sources of 

Supply, etc JO J 

Hard Pine. — Structural and Physical Properties. Importance. Source of 
Supply, etc £32 

a. White Pine (Pinus strobus) i-?^ 

b. White Pine (Pinus flexilis) I^e 

c. Sugar Pine (Pinus lambertiana) 1^6 

d. White Pine (Pinus monticola) 1^7 

e. Georgia, Hard, Yellow or Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) 138 

f. Cuban Pine (Pinus heterophylla) I^ig 

g. Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata) 140 

h. Loblolly Pine (Pinus t?eda) 141 

i. Bull Pine, Yellow Pine, Western Pine (Pinus ponderosa) 142 

j. Norway Pine, Red Pine (Pinus resinosa ) I4'3 

k. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) 144 

/. Northern Pine, Scotch Pine, Dantzic Pine (Pinus sylvestris) 145 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Kauri Pine (Dammara). 



PAGE 



Section 29. Descriptive. Structural and Physical Characteristics. "Kauri 

Gum, " etc 146 

a. Kauri Pine (Dammara australis) 147 

Spruce (Picea). 

Section 30. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities. Commercial 

Divisions. Botanical Characteristics 148 

a. Black Spruce (Picea nigra) 150 

d. Red Spruce (Picea rubens) 150 

c. White Spruce (Picea alba) 151 

d. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni) 152 

e. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) 153 

Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga). 

Section 31. Great Size of Trees. Localities. Structural and Physical Pecu- 
liarities of Wood. Botanical Characteristics 154 

a. Douglas or Red Spruce or Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) 155 

Fir (Abies). 

Section 32. Sources of Supply. Structural and Physical Characteristics. 

Confusion of Names. Botanical Characteristics 156 

a. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) 157 

d. Great Silver Fir (Abies grandis) 158 

tr. White Fir (Abies concolor) 159 

t/. Red Fir (Abies magnifica) 160 

e. Red Fir. Noble Fir (Abies nobilis) 161 

Hemlock (Tsuga). 

Section 33. Distribution. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. 

Botanical Characteristics 162 

a. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) 163 

d. Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) 163 

Larch; Tamarack (Larix). 

Section 34. Historical. Sources. Structural and Physical Peculiarities 

Botanical Characteristics 164 

a. Larch, Tamarack (Larix americana) 165 

d. Larch, Tamarack (Larix occidentalis) 166 

Cedar (Cedrus, Thuya, Cham^ecyparis, Libocedrus, Juniperus). 

Section 35. Confusion of Names. Historical. Structural and Physical Pecu- 
liarities of Wood. Uses. Commercial Divisions, etc 167 

a. Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) 169 

d. Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) 170 

f. White Cedar, ArborvitK (Thuya occidentalis) 171 

c/. Canoe Cedar, Arborvitce, Giant Arborvitte (Thuya plicata) 172 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi 

PAGE 

e. White Cedar (Chamsecyparis thyoides) 173 

/. Port Orford Cedar, Lawson Cypress (^Cliamaecyparis law- 

soniana) 1 74 

g. Yellow Cedar, Yellow Cypress, Sitka Cypress (Chamaecyparis 

nootkatensis) 1 7 e 

A. Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) 176 

Cypress (Cupressus, Taxodium). 

Section 36. Confusion of Names. Sources. Historical. Structural and 

Physical Peculiarities. Commercial Divisions. Fungus Disease 177 

a. Cypress, Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum) 179 

Redwood (Sequoia). 

Section 37. Locality. Peculiarities of Trees. Structural and Physical Quali- 
ties of Wood. Uses. Mammoth Trees 180 

a. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) 182 

i. Giant Redwood (Sequoia washingtoniana) 182 



PART III. 
ENDOGENOUS SERIES. 

Section 38. Definitions. Cellular Structure. Structural and Physical Pecu- 
liarities of Endogenous Wood. Uses. General Information 183 

Palm (Palmace^). 

Section 39. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. 

Uses. Botanical Characteristics 185 

a. Cabbage Palmetto (Sabal palmetto) 186 

b. Washington Palm (Washingtonia filifera) 187 

Yucca (Yucca). 

Section 40. Localities. Structural and Physical Peculiarities of Wood. 

Uses, etc 188 

a- Joshua Tree, Yucca (Yucca arborescens) 189 

Bamboo (Bambusse). 

Section 41. Botanical Characteristics. Structural and Physical Peculiarities 

of Wood. Growth. Uses in the Orient. Possibilities in America, etc. 190 
a. Bamboo (Bambusae vulgaris) 192 



LIST OF PLATES. 



Frontispiece. Live Oak (Quercus virginiana). 

Plate 2. Exogenous Structure in Wood— Yearly Rings or Layers. 

'< 3. Exogenous Structure in Wood — Medullary or Pith Ray. 

<» 4. Exogenous Structure in Wood — Cross-sections Enlarged. 

'I 5. Oak (Quercus alba). 

" 6. Ash (Fraxinus americana). 

" 7. Elm (Ulmus americana). 

<< 8. Maple (Acer saccharum). 

<« 9. Walnut (Juglansj. 

" 10. Hickory (Hicoria ovata). 

" II. Chestnut (Castanea dentata). 

" 12. Beech (Fagus). 

" 13. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). 

«< 14. Birch (Betula). 

" 15. Locust (Robinia, Gleditsia). 

" 16. Whitewood (Liriodendrou tulipifera). 

" 17. Black Willow (Salix nigra). 

" 18. Catalpa (Catalpa). 

" 19. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale). 

«< 20. Horse Chestnut (/Esculus hippocastanum). 

*' 21. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua). 

• " 22. Holly, Boxwood, LignumvitK (Hex), (Buxus, Cornus), (Guajacum). 

" 23. Persimmon, Osage Orange, Cherry (Diospyros), (Madura), (Prunus). 

«« 24. Teak, Greenheart (Tectona), (Nectandra). 

«* 25. Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). 

«' 26. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). 

<' 27. Pine (Pinus). 

*' 28. Kauri Pine (Dammara australis). 

" 29. Black Spruce (Picea nigra). 

«« 30. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). 

<' 31. Hemlock (Tsuga). 

" 32. Larch, Tamarack (Larix). 

■ " 33. Cedar (Cedrus, Thuya, etc.). 

<' 34. Cypress (Cupressus, Taxodium). 

" 35- Redwood (Sequoia). 

" 36. Endogenous Structure in Wood. 

" 37. Palm (Palmaceje). 

" 38. Yucca (Yucca). 
. " 39. Bamboo (Bambusse). 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

NAMES AND LOCALITIES. 

" Check List of Forest Trees of the United States, their Names 
and Ranges," Sudworth. (U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 17.) 

FEATURES OF TREES, BOTANIES. 

Prof. Sargent's " Silva of North America"; INIichaux and 
Nuttall's "North American Silva"; Apgar's ^^ Trees of Northern 
Untied States"; Publications U. S. Forestry Division; " Our Native 
Trees," Keeler; "Familiar Trees," Mathews; "Timber Trees and 
Forests of North CaroHna, " Pinchot & Ashe (N. C. Geological 
Survey Bulletin No. 6); "Report on Trees and Shrubs of Massa- 
chusetts," Emerson; "Manual of Botany," Gray; "Plants," 
Coulter; " Illustrated Flora of U. S.," Britton and Brown; etc., etc. 
Botanical Gazette; Guide to Trees and Shrubs of New England by 
their Leaves, Bradley Whidder, Boston. 

COLOR, APPEARANCE OR GRAIN OF WOOD. 

Jesup Collection at Museum 0/ Natural History, New York City; 
Houghs American Woods (^sections). 

STRUCTURAL QUALITIES AND USES OF WOODS. 

''Timber," Roth {Bulletin No, 10, U. S. Forestry Div); Vol. IX, 
Tenth U. S, Census; Prof. Sargent's " Catalogue Jesup Collections" ; 
Prof. J. B.Johiison's " Materials of Construction" ; Prof, Thurston's 
" Materials of Engineering," Part I; Dr. F. E. Kidder's " Inspection 
of Materials and Workmanship. " Allusions in numerous publica- 
tions U. S. Forestry Division. 

WEIGHTS AND MODULI. 

Circular No. 13, U. S. Forestry Division; Prof. J. B. Johnson's 
"Materials of Construction"; Mr. S. P. Sharpless' Tables for the 
U. S. Census (Vol. IX, Tenth Census; also Executive Document 
No. 5, 48th Congress, ist Session, and also Sargent's ''Catalogue 
Jesup Collection"); Prof. Lanza's " Applied Mechanics." 



XVI BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

AMERICAN SPECIES. 

See foot-notes to species in question. 

FOREIGN SPECIES. 

T/ios. Lazletfs ''Timber and Timber Trees"; Report on Forests 
of Western Australia by J. Ednie Brown; Catalogue Kew Botanical 
Gardens, London; Works Baron Ferd. von Mueller; "American 
Lumber in Foreign Markets" (Special Consular Reports, Vol. XI, 
U. S. State Dept. ); Sievensoft's '' Irees of Commerce"; also see 
foot-notes, species in question. 

GENERAL. 

^'Forestry for Farmers," Fernow, and other U, S. Forestry 
Division Publications, Vol. IX, Tenth U. S. Census; Hough's 
American Woods (text); The Forester; The Northwestern Lumber- 
man; The (New Orleans) Lumber Trade Journal; The New York 
Lumber Trade Journal; The Timber Trades Journal (London); 
"Lumber Trade of U. S. " (Bureau Statistics U. S. Treas. Dept,); 
Trees in Winter, Huntington. 

HISTORICAL. 

Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon; Pliny, etc. 

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES. 

U. S. Dispensatory, 

Books particularly useful to beginners are in italics. Names are 
repeated when books could not be particularly classed under one 
heading. Also see foot-notes under subiects in questions. 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 



INTRODUCTION. 

A TREE has been defined as a woody plant that produces 
naturally and in its native place one principal erect stem with 
a definite crown of foliage. A plant thus attaining to the 
dignity of a tree is said to be arborescent.* 

There are nearly five hundred distinct species of trees 
growing in the United States, t as well as many others peculiar 
to other countries, yet the great mass of wood everywhere 
utilized is derived from comparatively few of them.| Many 
woods will be more generally employed as their valuable 
properties become more familiar or as the supplies of wood 
now utilized continue to diminish. 

The same tree is often called by different common names 
in different places. Nearly thirty names are thus applied to 
the longleaf pine {Piiius palustris\. Such confusion can be 
avoided only by regarding the recognized botanical nomencla- 
ture. 

The botanical name of a plant consists of two principal 
terms denoting genus and species. Ouercus, for example, is 



* Fernow, Introduction to U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 17. 

f Dr. Fernow credits 495 trees to United States (Introduction to U. S. Fores- 
try Bui. No. 17); Prof. Sargent, counting species only and excluding varieties, 
gives 422 (Silva of North America). 

X "The principal timbers of commerce in the United States are the species 
known popularly as pine, fir, oak, hickory, hemlock, ash, poplar, maple, cypress, 
spruce, cedar, and walnut." ("The Lumber Trade of the United States," Treas. 
Dept., Bureau of Statistics.) 



2 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 

the generic name including all species of oak. Alba, rubra, 
and others are specific names denoting the said species. 
Quercus alba and Quercus rubra are completed terms. Genera 
are not fixed but differ with autliorities, so that the abbreviated 
name of the botanist responsible for the classification adopted 
is often added, as Quercus alba Linn, and Ulmus fulva 
Michx. 

A species is a collection of individuals that might well have 
.sprung from some single root. A genus is a collection of re- 
lated species. Genera are gathered into families. Families 
and genera differ with authorities. A variety includes indi- 
viduals differing slightly from accepted species. Its name 
when existing is part of the specific name. ' ' Quercus robur 
var. pedunculata " specifies a variety (pedunculata) of " red 
or strong (robur) oak (Quercus). A variety of one botanist is 
sometimes a distinct species of another. 

The size and character of the trunk, and the range, 
locality, or distribution of the tree, have much to do with the 

utility of the wood, since large 
or perfect timbers cannot be 
derived from species charac- 
terized by small or crooked 
trees, and since wood is always 
more used if it is widely dis- 
tributed so as to be easily 
available. "' 

Wood is made up of cell- 
structures ; as, the true fibre, 
which originates from several 
cells; the tracheid (tra-ke-id), 
which originates from one; the 
vessel, which is a short, v/ide 
tube joined vertically end to 
end with others of its kind; the pith-ray; the resin-duct, and 
others, — all of which are often popularly referred to as fibres. 





Fig. 



SoMF. Wood Elements. 



* Fossils show that many species covered wider ranges than at present. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

The character and the arrangement of cell-structures differ 
with species. Wood is hard, soft, light, heavy, tough, porous, 
elastic, or otherwise, because of these differences. Appearance 
is affected, and woods may be distinguished from one another, 
because of this fact.* 

Most wood is used in "construction," that is, in mines, 
railways, houses, and ships, where demand is for size or 
quantity, and where finish and appearance amount to but little. 
Much wood is used in decoration and furniture, where appear- 
ance, appropriateness, and finish are called for; but these 
woods, although much in evidence, are infinitely less in quantity 
than those employed in construction. Some wood is required 
for implements, turnery, carvings, and small-piece work, 
where size is secondary and where qualities such as hardness, 
fine grain, and uniformity, controllable in small pieces, are 
primary. Some wood is used indirectly, as in the manufacture 
of paper-pulp, gunpowder, and chemicals. There are also 
by-products of trees, such as tanbark, turpentine, resin, nuts, 
and sugar. 

The weight, strength, and other measurable properties of 
Wood are variable. Weight varies from day to day as water 
is absorbed and evaporated. Strength differs with grain, age, 
moisture, specific gravity, and many other things. Two 
pieces from different portions of the same tree differ from each 
other. The proportions of sap and heart wood are seldom 
constant. Results from small specimens may differ from those 
obtained from larger ones.t The botanical accuracy of a 
specimen is not always certain, therefore figures relating to the 
physical properties of wood should be employed with greater 
caution than those relating to the more homogeneous metals. 

Many of the experiments conducted to establish statements 
regarding the physical properties of wood have been defective 

* Roth, U. S. Forestry Bui. No. lo, pp. 64-71. Also von Schrenk, U. S. Dept. 
Agriculture, Bureau Plant Ind>istry Bui. No. 14, pp. 12-16. 

f Only because imperfections are more likely in larger pieces. Large and 
small pieces of equally perfect wood are equally strong. (See Publications U. S. 
Forestry Div. and J. B. Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 462.) 



4 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF JVOOD. 

in that while the conclusions were correct as appHed to the 
specimens immediately studied, such specimens did not stand 
for the species at large. The recognition of difficulties, the 
selection of specimens, the scientific standardizing of methods 
so that results could be generally utilized, as distinct from the 
simple manipulation of specimens in testing-machines, have 
not been exhaustively attempted until recently.* 

The experiments that have been made to determine the 
strength of woods may be grouped into the four following 
divisions: 

(i) Experiments conducted by the U. S. Division of Forestry 
(Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief), under the direction of Professor J. B. 
Johnson. About forty thousand tests were made, distributed over 
thirty-one American species, the results, so far as obtained, being 
undoubtedly the most valuable in existence. The detail considered 
and methods evolved have in a way reclassed the testing of woods 
and must influence all future efforts, but results are disappointing in 
that they have been obtained for so few species, and some of these 
of commercially secondary importance. These experiments are 
cliaracterized as follows: 

Completeness and Reliability of Records. 

Large and Small Test Pieces, 

Moisture Conditions Standardized at i2<fo Dry Weight. 

Samples from Representative Portions of Tree. 

Selection of Representative Trees. 

Uniformity of Methods. 

Large Number of Individual and Total Tests. 

Small Number of Species Covered. 

Specific Gravity Determinations. 

Soil and Forest Conditions Indicated. 

Botanical Accuracy Assured. 

These experiments are originally described in Circular No. 15 
and other publications of the U. S. Forestry Division, also in 
" Materials of Construction," by Professor J. B. Johnson. 

(2) Experiments conducted for the Tenth U. S. Census by 
Mr. J. P. Sharpless at the Watertown (Mass.) Arsenal upon speci- 
mens botanically selected by Professor Sargent. These experiments 
are less complete in detail, and averages are based upon infinitely 

* It should be noted that the selection and preparation of specimens require 
tlie exercise of more judt^ment than the simple testing of specimens, if the con.- 
elusions are to be such that they can be generalized from. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

fewer tests for each species. So far as known most specimens were 
from butts. Nothing is known of moisture conditions save that 
specimens were "carefully seasoned." Tests were upon about 
twelve hundred specimens divided over four hundred and twelve 
species, allowing but a small number for each. The series is most 
valuable in that the species attempted were so numerous as to present 
an almost complete American series; in that the botanical identity 
of the specimens was beyond question, and because it gives a general 
idea of relative values. The results are frequently quoted and appear 
on the accompanying pages in spaces immediately following those 
occupied by, or set apart for, ' ' Forestry ' ' figures or their alternates. 
The tests are characterized as follows: 

Botanical Accuracy Assured. 

Specific Gravity Peterminations. 

Uniformity of Methods. 

Limited Number of Individuals and Total Tests. 

Large Number of Species Covered. 

Small Test Pieces Only. 

Selection and Moisture Conditions Indefinite. 

They are originally described in Vol. IX, Tenth U. S. Census; 
Executive Document No. 5, Forty-eighth Congress, First Session; 
in Catalogue of the " Jesup Collection," by Professor C. S. Sargent, 
and elsewhere. 

(3) Experiments conducted upon full-sized pieces. The most 
reliable investigations under this head were either conducted by 
Professor Lanza, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, or 
else are noted by him in his work, " Applied Mechanics " (ed. 1895, 
pp. 673-711). They are valuable in that specimens were selected 
on a commercial rather than on a scientific basis. Professor Lanza 
claims that such actual pieces are less perfect and show approxi- 
mately one half the unit strength developed by the more carefully 
selected smaller specimens. These experiments are characterized as 
follows: 

Life-sized Specimens. 

Miscellaneous Selections as if for Practical Construction. 

Moisture and Other Data Indefinite. 

(4) All other experiments. Many experiments have been made 
from time to time which, while valuable, are not distinguished by 
any particular method or principle, such as separate the investiga- 
tions noted in the preceding articles. Data as to selection of 
specimens, moisture, and other conditions are either incomplete or 
else absolutely lacking. Such tests are referred to as are noted in 
works of Hatfield, Trautwein, Lazlett, Rankine, Thurston, and 
others. Some of these series are exceedingly valuable comparatively. 
Professor Rankine and Mr. Lazlett experimented principally upon 
foreign woods. 



6 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

The figures established ])y the United States Division of 
Forestry and alluded to in item i, page 4, appear, so far as 
they exist, upon the following pages. Where they do not 
exist, the leading spaces set apart for them are left vacant for 
other insertions as preferred. All coefficients are in pounds 
per square inch. Fractions of pounds in weight and lower 
fio-ures in coefficients have been omitted as superfluous. 

It is not always easy to determine the species of living 
trees, because forms in the forest differ from those in the open, 
because bark varies with age, and because fruit and leaves of 
many trees are lacking in the winter. It is easier to tell 
genus than species — that a tree is an oak, than whether it is a 
red or a pin oak. Experience is required in this connection. 

Trees are divided into two general divisions known as 
Exoeens and Endogens.* 



* This division coincides with that by which they are separated into Dicoty- 
ledons and Monocotyledons. 



PLATE 2. i:XOGENOUS STRUCI'URE IN WOOD. 
Yearly Rings or Layers. 




A section of a Longleaf Pine Tree. 



1 




iiijiifii^isfi-^'^wwiii ■'--•"'■ ■•- - 




'w* *'*' 


. . •"-'■^.ii^. 


■^.,,Ui* ■""" " 





A section of Oak showing "porous" structure in yearly layers. (Natural size.) 




A section of Hard Pine showing "solid" structure in layers. (Natural size.) 




EXOGENOUS TREES. 

{Dicotyledons . ) 

Exogenous trees are those the trunks of which are built 
up by rings or layers, each deposited consecutively upon the 
outside of the others. A section exhibits first a central point 
or canal known as a pith-cavity, next and consecutively the 
annual layers, and finall)^ the bark. The 
woods of this series are familiar to all. The 
oaks, pines, and practically all of the mer- 
chantable lumbers are among them. The 
forests are widely distributed, and the species 
are so numerous as to present an almost 
infinite range of possibilities. 

The voung wood of exogenous trees is ^''°- 2. -Section Box- 

^ ^ ELDER, SHOWING PlTH- 

porous. It permits the passage of sap and cavity at Centre. 
is known as sapwood (Alburnum). As a layer is enclosed by 
others and retreats from the surface of the tree, it becomes 
denser, its canals are filled \\'ith gums or tannin, color changes, 
and the result is heartwood (Duramen). This change goes 
forward rapidly in some trees, such as locusts, so that their 
sections appear to be almost wholly heartwood; other species 
require longer time, and sapwood then predominates. 

Heartwood gives stability to the tree, but is not needed in 
its physiological processes. It is tougher, heavier, stronger, 
and more valued in construction. Sapwood is vitally essen- 
tial to the life of the tree, but is lighter, weaker, less durable, 
and less valued in construction. Sapwood is pliable, and the 
sapwoods of several trees are valued for this reason. 

Wood-making varies as it takes place in the springtime 
and in the summer. Consequent differences in the densities 

7 



8 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



of the deposits serve to mark the Ihnits of the j-earl}^ rings. 
Some species, as the oaks and hickories, show pores through- 
out their spring woods which thus contrast with denser summer 
growths. Others, as Southern pines, change sharply, and 
their spring and summer growths appear as soHd bands. In 
even chmates, where seasons are not pronounced, growth is 
more regular and layers correspondingly less definite.* 

The cellular structure of wood is principally vertical, a fact 
that explains the ease with which wood is split up and down. 
Beside the vertical, there are horizontal cells, that cross the 
tree, strengthen and bind the vertical cells, and assist in the 
life-processes of the tree. These horizontal cells form wdiat 
are known as medullary or pith-rays and appear as simple 
lines or glistening plates according to the way in which the 
w^ood is cut. Woods differ in the size and number of these rays, 
which are by no means always visible to the eye (see plate 3). 

Woods are easy or difficult to w^ork in proportion as their 
fibres are arranged in a simple or a complicated manner. This 
is shown in the figures on plate 4. A knife pressed upon 




Fig. 3. 

the oak must crush or cut into the fibres themselves, whereas 
with the pine it finds some natural passage between the cells. 
Wood may be cut so as to develop cross-sections {d Fig. 3), 
radial sections (A'), or tangential sections (7^). The respect- 



* Circular No. 16, U. S. Forestry Division. 



PLATE 3. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. 
Medullary or Pith Ray. 



T 




R 



'^i^ to 






Actual appearances of pitli ray, PP. 
2^ 




Microsc(jpic enlargement of a tangential section of White Oak 
showing large pith ray, />^ 



PLATE 4. EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. 

(CROSS-SECTIONS, ENLARGED.) 




Two yearly layers of White Oak. The larger pures were formed in spring, the 
smaller ones in summer. The small circlesare ends of fibres. A knife pressed 
upon tins surface would crush or cut into the cells. The mass would not split or 
separate evenly. 




Two yearly layers of White Pine. The space in the outer or darker one is a 
resin-duct; the circles are ends of fibres (tracheids); pith rays are noticeable. A 
kniffe pressed upon this surface would find easy passage. The mass would separate 
easily. 



EXOGENOUS TREES. 9 

ive markings are in a general way indicated on the boards in 
the figure. 

Logs are sometimes sawn into quarters and then into pieces 
crossing and exposing the yearly rings. (See Fig. 
4.) These "quarter-sawn" surfaces are struc- x 
turally stronger and better, but are, by reason of ^ 
waste or small pieces, more costly than others. The ^^^^ 
pith -rays of some woods, such as oaks, are very pj^ ._ 
prominent when split as they are in "quarter- 
sawing, ' ' and the appearance of such woods is consequently 
improved.* 

Exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and 
needle-leaved conifers. The broad, flat leaves of trees such 
as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term, while the 
narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to 
the latter. The woods of the former group are usually referred 
to as hard woods, although some of them are very soft; those 
of the latter group are referred to as soft woods, although some 
of them are very hard. Most, but not all, of the broadleaf 
trees are deciduous, that is, they change their foliage every 
year; and most, but not all, of the needleleaf trees are ever- 
green, that is, the foliage is persistent. Needleleaf trees are 
also known as conifers, that is, cone-bearers. 

It is usual to associate the terms broadleaf, deciduous, and 
hard wood ; and likewise the terms needleleaf, conifer, ever- 
green, and soft wood. While general!}- correct, this is, as 
seen, not always so. A better division is into broadleaf trees 
or woods, and needleleaf conifers. 

* Some woods, as birdseye maple, are well developed by the rotary cut. 
A revolving log is advanced against a tool which pares a broad thin ribbon suit- 
able f(jr veneered work. 



BROADLEAF WOODS. 

The trees affording these woods are found in natural 
forests and under cultivation in nearly every portion of the 
c^lobe. The histories of some of them extend back to very 
remote periods. Their woods were the principal ones in con- 
struction until the advent of American soft woods. The oaks, 
elms, maples, and other so-called hard woods are of this 
group. 

Broadleaf woods are characterized by complex fibre condi- 
tions, absence of resins, and greater weights.* They are 
composed of several kinds of cells and fibres, arranged without 
the regularity so noticeable in the conifers. Cross-sections 
exhibit numerous, often easily visible pores, arranged in zones 
or scattered throughout the rings (see plate 2). Pith-rays are 
numerous and more or less conspicuous, save in softer hard 
woods such as poplar. Woods are difficult to work in propor- 
tion as they are complicated in structure. The numerous 
members of the group vary from one another and present an 
extensive range of properties. Trees do not usually afford 
l?rge pieces. Woods for cabinet work, implements, and other 
fine purposes are from this group. The total requirement is 
less than for needleleaf woods. 

The leaves of broadleaf trees are easily distinguished from 
the resinous, usually evergreen ones of the conifers. Most of 
them are deciduous, that is, shed every season, although some 
are persistent, that is, "evergreen." "Broadleaf," "decidu- 
ous," and "hardwood " trees are the same. 

* Neither resin-ducts nor resin exists in these woo Is, save sometimes in buds 
and leaves. 

lO 



PLATE 5. WIiriE OAK {^(Jttfrcits tuda). 




OAK. 

(Quercus.) 

The oaks are found on all of the continents of the northern 
hemisphere, as well as at high altitudes just south of the 
equator. Their woods stand pre-eminent among those of the 
broadleaf series and have been highly prized from early 
periods. Formerly relied upon for all purposes of house and 
naval architecture, they did not give way to the so-called 
" soft woods " for houses, and to iron for vessels, until com- 
paratively recent periods. They were supplanted for the 
former purposes upon the opening of the soft-wood forests of 
North America and of the Baltic ^ and for vessels subsequent 
to the conclusions of the American Civil War. 

The historical importance of oak is founded upon the repu- 
tation of the English Oak as derived from two trees, Quercus 
robur var. pedunculata and Quercus robur var. sessiliflora, 
usually taken as sub-species of Quercus robur.* It is said that 
these trees once formed large forests over Northern and 
Central Europe. Live-oak has always been highly esteemed, 
but is now very scarce. It is one of the hardest, heaviest, 
and most durable of constructive woods and was once largely 
employed in ship-building. The wood of the White Oak 
{Qiterciis alba) is at present preferred for most purposes fot 
which oak is now employed, and is one of the most valuable 
of the American hard woods. 

Oak is tough, durable, easily obtained, liable to warp and 
check in seasoning, often hard to nail without splitting, sus- 
ceptible of high polish, and not greatly liable to attack by 
insects. It contains gallic acid, causing peculiar taste and odor 
and attacking iron, the solutions staining the wood. Experi- 
ments t indicate that iron fastenings are shortly protected by 
an insoluble scale of resulting salt, and that the wood, although 

* Thought by some botanists to be distinct species, namely, Quercus pedun- 
cuhita and Quercus sessiliflora. 

t Havemeyer Chemical Laboratory, N. Y. University. II 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



darkened, remains practically uninjured. The later oaken 
vessels were iron-fastened,^ and cabinet-makers now employ 
that metal in joining oak. The barks of all species are also 
so charged with acid as to be used in the tanning of leather. 
The several kinds of oak are commercially divisible into 
three general groups, white oak, red or black oak, and live 
oak.f The principal species affording woods under each head 
are as follows: 



White Oak. Red or Black Oak. 

White Oak (Q. alba). Red Oak (Q. rubra). 

Cow Oak {Q. michauxii). Pm Oak (Q. palustris). 

Chestnut Oak (Q. prinus). Spanisli Oak (Q. digitata). 

Post Oak (Q. minor). Yellow or Black Oak 

Bur Oak (Q. macrocarpa). (Q. velutina). 
Pacific Post Oak (Q. gar- 
ryanna). 



Lfve Oak. 
Live Oak (Q. virginiana). 
California Live Oak (Q. 

agrifolia). 
Live Oak (Q. chrysolepis). 




Oak trees are char- 
acterized by oblong, 
thin-shelled kernels, 
protruding from hard 
scaly cups and called 
acorns. The foliage is 



White Oak Red Oak 

{Qiu-nus alba). [Quercus rubra.') 

sometimes deciduous and sometimes 
evergreen. Most oaks require many 
years to reach maturity, but are then 
long-lived. Fifty of the nearly three 
hundred known species of oak are na- 
tives of the United States and Canada 




all but four become trees under favorable 



Ln'E O A K ( Qitc-rctis virginiana') 



conditions. Quercus is from two Celtic words, qucr, signifying 
fine, and cjiex, a tree. 

* Communication. Mr. Chas. H. Cramp, President Cramp Ship-building Co., 
Philadelphia. 

\ This division is also a botanical one based not only on differences in anatom- 
ical structure of the wood itself, but on the time required by fruit in attaining 
maturity, and on persistence of foliage (evergreen or deciduous), etc. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF WOODS. 13 

White Oak. Quercus alba Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

White Oak (general). Stave Oak (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Widespread, north-central and eastern United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height. Three to six feet in 
diameter, fine shape and appearance. Grayish-white bark. 
Comparatively sweet ovoid oblong acorns in rough shallow 
cups. Rounded lobes or projections to leaves. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood brown with sapwood lighter. Annual layers well 

marked. 
Medullary rays broad and prominent. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Tough, strong, heavy, hard, liable to check unless seasoned 
with care. Durable in contact with the soil. Receives a 
high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, construction, cooperage, cabinet-making, rail- 
way ties, fuel, etc. Bark is rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
50 (U. S, Forestry Div.).* 
46. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,090,000 (average of 218 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,380,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

13,100 (average of 218 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

A tree of the first economic importance. The most widely 
employed of all American oaks. Name refers to appearance 
of bark. The supply diminishing because of value of timber, 
also the sweetness of nuts cause them to be eaten by animals. 

* See page 6. 



14 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cow Oak. Querctis viichauxii Null. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Cow Oak (local and common Swamp White Oak (Del., 

name). Ala.). 

Basket Oak (Ala., Miss., La., Swamp Chestnut Oak (Fla.). 

Tex., Ark.). 

Locality. 

Southeastern United States, Delaware and Florida, westward 
along Gulf to Texas. Also southern Indiana and Illinois to 
Gulf. Best on rich bottoms in Arkansas and Louisiana. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy- five to one hundred feet in height. Three to six feet in 
diameter, rough, light-gray bark with loose scaly ridges. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood Uglit brown, light bufT sapwood,, conspicuous 
medullary rays, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, very strong, tough, durable, easily split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
46 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

50. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,610,000 (average of 256 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,370,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

11,500 (average of 256 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

15,800. 

Remarks. 

The principal white oak of Southern States; edible acorns 
devoured by cattle, whence its name. 

* See page 6. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 15 

Chestnut Oak. Quercus prinus Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Chestnut Oak (local and com- Tanbark Oak (N. C). 

mon name). Swamp Chestnut Oak (N. C.) 

Rock Oak m. Y., Del., Pa.). Mountain Oak (Ala.). 
Rock Chestnut Oak (Mass., 
R. I., Pa., Del., Ala.). 

Locality. 

Maine to Georgia, westward intermittently to Kentucky and 
Alabama. Best development in southern Alleghany Mountain 
regicm. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to eighty feet in height, three or four feet in 
diameter. Leaves resemble those of chestnut. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, medullary 
rays conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, tough, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for railway ties. Bark rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,780,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,600. 

Remarks. 

Prinus is a Greek name applied to a species of oak. 



1 6 • THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Pnct Oflt i Querciis minor Sargent, 

i-osi uaK. ^ (ytt6.r<;z/j- obiusiloba Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Post Oak (local and common Overcup Oak (Fla.). 

name). White Oak (Ky., Ind.). 

Iron Oak (Del., Miss., Neb.). Box Oak (Md.). 

Box White Oak (R. I.). Brash Oak (Md.). 
Chene etoile (Quebec). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky Mountains — Massachusetts to northern Florida, 
westward intermittently to Nebraska and Gulf States. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Low shrub in Florida. Blunt lobes or projections to leaves. 
Leaves clustered at ends of branches. Fine tree with rounded 
top. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light or dark brown with lighter sapwood. Close- 
grained, annual rings well marked. Numerous and con- 
spicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in drying. Durable in con- 
tact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used, particularly in Southwest, for fencing, railway ties, 
and fuel; also for cooperage, construction, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
50 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

52. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,030,000 (average of 49 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1, 180,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

12,300 (average of 49 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,900. 

Remarks. 

Most common and widely distributed oak in Gulf States west of 
the Mississippi River. Obtusiloba, the Latin for blunt-lobed, 
refers to the shapes of the leaves. Wood seldom commercially 
distinguished from white oak. 

* See page 6. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 17 

Bur Oak. Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Bur Oak (local and common Mossycup Oak (Mass., Pa., 

name). Del., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., 

Overcup Oak (R. I., Del, Pa., 111., Iowa, Neb., Kan.). 

Miss., La., 111., Minn.). Scrub Oak (Neb., Minn.). 

Mossycup White Oak (Minn.). Overcup White Oak (Vt.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick, New England, westward intermittently to 
Montana and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and thirty feet in height, five to seven 
feet in diameter. Deep opposite depressions to leaves. 
Mossy, fringed border at top of acorn-cup. Corky wings on 
young branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, broad 
conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, tough, very durable in contact with 
ground. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Similar to those of Quercus alba. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46.00. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,320,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,900. 

Remarks, 

Extends farthest west and northwest of any other Eastern oak. 
Especially recommended for prairie planting. 



1 8 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF PVOOD. 

White Oak. Quercus gar ry ana Douglas. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Wliite Oak (Cal., Oreg.). Oregon White Oak (Cal.). 
Pacific Post Oak (Oreg.). California Post Oak. 

Western Whiite Oak (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, British Columbia into California. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to ninety feet high, one and one half to two and one half 
feet in diameter. A small shrub at high elevations. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or yellow. Sapwood lighter, often 
nearly white. Compact structure. Distinctly marked annual 
rings. Medullary rays often conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, strong, hard, tough. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, carriages, furniture, indoor decoration, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 150,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

Locally important. The best substitute for Eastern White Oak 
produced on Pacific coast. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF WOODS. 19 

Red Oak. Quercus rubra Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Red Oak (local and common name). 

Black Oak (Vt., Conn., N. Y., Wis., la., Neb., So. Dak., 

Ont.). 
Spanish Oak (Pa., N. C). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky IMountains, Nova Scotia to Georgia, westward 
intermittently to Nebraska and Kansas, best in Massachusetts. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height. Three to six feet and 
over in diameter, brownish-gray bark smooth on branches. 
Leaves have sharp-pointed lobes, very large acorns in flat 
shallow cups. A fine complete tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, sapwood darker, coarse-grained, 
well-marked annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. 

Structural Qualities of wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, inclined to check in drying, acid, inferior 
to white oak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Works of secondary importance, clapboards, cooperage, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
45 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,970,000 (average of 57 tests by U. S. Forestry Div,).* 
1,600,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,400 (average of 57 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

140,000. 

Remarks. 

Grows more rapidly than other oaks. Bark used in tanning. 

* See page 6. 



20 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Pin Oak. Quercus palustris Muenchh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pin Oak (local and common Water Oak (R. I., 111.). 

name). Swamp Oak (Pa., Ohio, 

Swamp Spanish Oak (Ark., Kans.). 

Kan.). Water Spanish Oak (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota to Kansas, eastward intermittently to Massachusetts 
and Virginia. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. 
Full-rounded or pyramidal top, smooth thin bark, numerous 
small pin-like branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood variegated light brown, sapwood nearly white, 
coarse-grained, medullary rays numerous and conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shingles, clapboards, construction, interior finish, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot, 

43- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,500,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,400. 

Remarks. 

Palustris, the Latin for swampy, refers to favorite location of 
tree. The numerous slender secondary branches suggesting 
pins cause tree to be easily recognized, particularly in winter. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF WOODS. 21 

c • Vi n b- ^ Quercus digitaia Sudworth, 

bpanisn UaK. ^^ Quercus falcata Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Spanish Oak (local and common name). 

Red Oak (N. C, Va., Ga., Fla., Ala., Mis., La., Ind.). 

Spanish Oak (La.). 

Locality. 

New Jersey and Florida, westward intermittently to Illinois and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to seventy feet in height, two and one half to four feet in 
diameter. Variable foliage. Globular to oblong acorns. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light red, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, annual 
layers strongly marked, medullary rays few but conspicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, strong, not durable, checks badly in drying. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Somewhat used for cooperage, construction, etc. Bark very 
rich in tannin. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,900,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,900. 

Remarks. 

Dry barren soils. Grows rapidly. 



2 2 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Black Oak, Yellow Oak. \ ^"'''''' ^^"f'^ ^^''\. 

\ Quercus tinctoria Barti. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Black Oak, Yellow Oak (local Tanbark Oak (111.), 

and common names). Spotted Oak (Mo.). 

Yellow Bark, Yellow-bark Oak Quercitron Oak (Del., S. C, 

(R. I., Minn.). La., Kans., Minn.). 

Dyer's Oak (Tex.). 

Locality. 

East of longitude 96 degrees, Maine and Florida, westward 
intermittently to INIinnesota and Texas. Best in North 
Atlantic States. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and thirty feet in height, three to five 
feet in diameter. Dark gray to black bark, yellow inner 
bark. Acorns have bitter yellow kernels. Foliage turns hand- 
somely in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, coarse grain, 
annual layers strongly marked, thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in drying, not tough. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cooperage, construction, furniture, and decoration. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
45 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

i,740,oco (average of 40 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,470,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,800 (average of 40 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,800. 

Remarks, 

Yellow inner bark affords yellow dye. 

* See page 6. 



i 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 23 

Live Oflk i Quercus virginiana Mill. 

\ Quercus virens Ait. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Live Oak (Va., N. C, S. C, Chene Vert (La.). 

Ga. , Fla., INIiss., Ala., 
Tex., La., Calif.). 

Locality. 

Southern States — coast from Virginia to Florida, westward to 
Texas and Lower California, southern Mexico, Central 
America, and Cuba. Best in south Atlantic States. 

Features of Tree, 

Fifty to sixty feet high, diameter three to six feet. General 
resemblance to apple-tree. Evergreen foliage. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or vellow, sapwood nearly white, 
close-grained, compact structure, pronounced medullary ray, 
annual layers often hardly distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, strong, tough, hard, difficult to work, splits easily. 
Receives high polish, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Ship-building. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood m Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

59- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,600,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Trunk and branches furnish small straight pieces, but principally 
knees, crooked or compass timbers. Virens refers to ever- 
green foliage. Splits so easily that it is better fastened with 
bolts or trenails than spikes. Now scarce, grows rapidly. 



24 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

California Live Oak. Quercus agrifoUa Nee. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Coast Live Oak (Cal.). Encena (Cal.). 

California Live Oak (Cal.). Evergreen Oak (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy-five and occasionally more feet in height, 
three to six feet in diameter. Evergreen foliage, leaves 
spiked like those of holly. Shape resembles that of apple tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of V/ood. 

Heartwood creamy white, but darkens on exposure. Compact 
structure, annual layers hardly distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, but brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,200. 

Remarks, 

Agrifolia is from the Latin acer, sharp, zxiA folium, leaf, allud- 
ing to the spinous toothed leaves. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 25 

Live Oak. Quercus chrysolepis Liebm. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth.) 

Live Oak (Cal,, Oreg.). Canyon Oak, Iron Oak, Maul 

Canyon Live Oak, Black Live Oak, Valparaiso Oak (Cal.). 

Oak, Golden-cup Oak 
(Cal.). 

Locality. 

West of Rocky Mountains, canyons, and high elevations. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, three to six feet in diameter. 
Often low^ shrub. Impressive appearance. Evergreen foliage. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, small pores in wide 
bands parallel to conspicuous medullary rays. Close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, strong, tough, difficult to work. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Implements, wagons, tool-handles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

52. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,700,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

18,000. 

Remarks. 

Said to be the most valuable of the California oaks. Grows at 
elevations of 2000 to 5000 feet. Highland Oak {Quercus wis- 
lizeni) is an evergreen and a Pacific Coast variety. 



2G THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

English Oak. Quercus robur var. pedunculata. 

Nomenclature. 

English Oak, British Oak. Common Oak. 

JLocality. 

Widespread throughout northern and central Europe. 

Peatures of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet in height, eight to ten feet in 
diameter. Crooked branches, stalkless leaves, long-stalked 
acorns. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, darker spots frequent, sapwood 
lighter. Compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, tough, strong, durable, difficult to work, liable to warp 
in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, beams, cabinet-work, formerly carpentry. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
51 (Laslett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,170,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 
10,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The English, Chestnut, Durmast, or Red Oak, Q. robur var. 
sessiliflora, distinguished by long leaf stalks and short acorn 
stalks, affords practically similar but lower-rated wood. The two 
varieties supply the British Oak of commerce. Dantzic, Rigi, 
and some other European oaks take names from port of ship- 
ment. Rubrus is red, but robur is a noun meaning strength; 
the adjective robustus means " oaken " or vigorous. 



PLATE (j. WIllTH ASH {/•raxutus timirnana). 





ASH. 
{Fraxinus.) 

Ash is widely distributed over the temperate regions of the 
northern hemisphere, and occurs in the tropics, on the island 
of Cuba. The tree has occupied a position second only to 
that of oak. Our Teutonic forefathers relied upon its wood for 
boats and weapons. Their ancient 
faith connects it with the creation of 
the original man. It is often asso- 
ciated with oak in country proverbs. - ^-^ -- 
Europeans regard the trees for or- 
namental purposes, but Americans 
value them for wood.. -"^ 

Ash and oak woods resemble one , 

another in that there are bands of 

open pores in both woods, but the 

pith-rays of the ash are thinner and J 

scarcely discernible. Ash is coarser, „, , ' ^^ 

•' _ White Ash (Frnxmus 

less attractive, easier to work, tough, americana). 

elastic, and somewhat lighter than oak. It seasons well, but 
does not last when exposed to the weather. Lumbermen sep- 
arate the woods into white and black ash, the former including 
the lighter-colored and more desirable pieces. This commer- 
cial division is also a botanical one in the North, where the 
only species of any note are the white ash and black ash 
{F. americana and F. nigra). The Southern green ash {F. 
lanccolata) is usually classed as white ash. The trees that grow 
up after the cutting of the virgin forest afford tougher, more 
pliable, but not necessarily stronger pieces, known as " second- 
growth ' ' ash. Although not relied upon for out-of-door con- 
struction, ash is one of the most important of the cheaper 
cabinet woods and is used in stairs, furniture, and similar works. 

* A tradition, old in Pliny's time, is that serpents avoid ash trees; another is 
that ash is particularly liable to be struck by lightning. (Keeler.) 

27 



28 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

One half of the thirt}' known species of the genus l^Vaxinus 
inhabit North America. 



The name ash is also applied to several species of the genus Pyrus or Sorbus, 
to which the apple, pear, quince, and some other trees belong. "Mountain Ash " 
is either Pyrus americana or Pyrus sambucifolia. Both species, with their bright 
red berries, are to be classed as shrubs rather than trees; their light, soft, weak, 
close-grained woods having no economic importance, save perhaps for fuel. The 
series is partially as follovi's: 

Pvrus mains (Common apple). Pyrus americana (Mountain ash). 

P\rus coronaria (American crab-apple). Pyrus sambucifolia (Mountain ash). 
Pyrus communis (Common pear). Pyrus ancuparia (Rowan tree, European 

Pyrus vulgaris (Common quince). Mountain ash). 

The Toothache Trees, Xanthoxylum americana and Xanthoxylum clava-herculis 
(Linn.), are known as ash and prickly ash. The tjopher wood, Cladrastis tinctoria, 
is yellow ash. These woods are not important. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 29 

White Ash. Fraxinus americana Litm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Ash (local and common Cane Ash (Ala., Miss., La.). 

name). American Ash (la.). 

Ash (Ark., la., Wis., 111., 

Mo., Minn.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Texas. Greatest development in the Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. Three 
to four feet in diameter. Usually smooth leaves, have whitish 
under surfaces. Gray furrowed bark, long-winged seed. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, usually mottled; sapwood much 
lighter or nearly white. Coarse-grained, compact structure. 
Layers clearly marked by large open ducts. Medullary rays 
obscure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, elastic, becoming brittle with age, not 
durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Agricultural implements, carriages, handles, oars, interior and 
cheap cabinet-work. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
39 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,640,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,440,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,800 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12,200. 

Remarks. 

Economically valuable. Rapid growers, preferring low, rather 
moist soil. Not apt to form in forests, but found mingled 
with other varieties. Large trees sometimes have large heart- 
cracks. 

* See page 6. 



.30 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

^ J . , j Fraxinus pemisylvattica Marsh. 

( Fraxinus pubcscens Lam. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Red Ash (local and common Brown Ash (Mo.). 

name). Black Ash (N. J.). 

River Ash (R. I., Ont.). Ash (Nebr.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Alabama. Best developed in North Atlantic States. 

Features of Tree. 

A small tree, rarely over forty-five feet high, one and one-half 
feet in diameter. Downy-covered young twigs and leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, sapwood light brown streaked with 
yellow, coarse-grained compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Agricultural implements, handles, boats, oars, paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 154,000. 
INIodulus of Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Grows on borders of streams and swamps in low ground. Often 
confused with and substituted for the more valuable white ash. 
Pubescens is in allusion to the downy covering of the new 
twigs (those of white ash usually smooth). Pennsylvanica 
refers to locality in which it is well developed. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO A DLEAF IVOODS. 31 

Blue Ash. Fraxinus qiiadrangulata Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Blue Ash (Mich., 111., Ky., Mo., Ala.). 

Locality. 

Central States, Mississippi Valley, Michigan, and southward, 
cultivated in Pennsylvania. Best in low Wabash Valley. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher, one to 
two feet in diameter. Slender. Blue properties in inner 
bark, smooth square twigs. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow, streaked with brown, sapwood lighter, 
close-grained, compact structure satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, brittle, not strong, most durable of ash woods. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used in floorings, carriage-building, pitchfork- and 
other tool-handles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

44. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

I , I GO, 000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,500. 

Remarks. 

Has no superior among ash woods. Blue Ash pitchfork -handles 
are very fine. Prefers limestone formations. Inner bark 
colors water blue, whence name. 



32 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Pl5,rt A«5h i Fraxinus nigra Marsh. 

isidCK Abn. ^ Fraxinus sambucifoUa Lam. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Black Ash (local and common Swamp Ash (Vt. , R. I. , N. Y. ). 

name). Brown Ash (N. H., Tenn.). 

Water Ash (W. Va., Tenn., Hoop Ash (Vt., N. Y., Del., 

Ind.). Ohio, 111., Ind.). 

Locality. 

Northern and Northeastern States— Newfoundland to Virginia, 
westward intermittently to IManitoba and Arkansas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to eighty feet in height, one to one and one-half feet in 
diameter. Leaves resemble those of Elder. A thin tree. 
Excrescences or knobs frequent on trunk. Dark, almost 
black, winter buds. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood light brown, often nearly 
white, coarse-grained, compact structure, medullary rays 
numerous and thin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Separates feasily in layers, rather soft and heavy, tough, elastic, 
not strong or durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for interior finish, fencing, barrel -hoops, cabinet- 
making, splint baskets, chair-bottoms. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,230,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

11,400. 

Remarks. 

Excrescences known as burls; their distorted grain causes them 
to be prized for veneers. The most northerly of ash-trees; 
one of the most slender of trees. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 3S 

^ . , ( Fraximis lanceolaia Borkh. 

Green Asn. \ j^, . ,, 

( rraxinus viridis iMichx. f. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Green Ash (local and common Ash (Ark. Iowa). 

name). Swamp Ash (Fla. , Ala., Tex. )_ 

Blue Ash (Ark., Iowa). Water Ash (Iowa). 

White Ash (Kans., Neb.). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky INIountains. Vermont and northern Florida 
intermittently to Utah and Arizona. 

Features of Tree, 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Bright 
green upper and lower surfaces of smooth leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter, rather coarse-grained,, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities. 

Hard, heavy, strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses. 

Similar to those of White Ash. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
44. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,050,000 (average of 10 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,280,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

11,600 (average of 10 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

12,700. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes considered a variety of Red Ash. 

* See page 6. 



34 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Oregon Ash. Fraxinus Oregotia Null. 

Nomenclature. 

Oregon Ash (Calif., Wash., Oregon). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, Washington to California. Best developed in 
bottom lands, southwestern Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to occasionally seventy-five feet in height, one to one 
and one-half feet in diameter. Dark grayish-brown, bark 
exfoliates in thin scales. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained, compact 
structure, numerous thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Rather light, hard, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Manufacture of furniture, carriage-frames, cooperage, and fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
]\Iodulus of Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9400. 

Remarks. 

One of the valuable deciduous trees of the Pacific coast. 
Thrives only on moist soils and in moist climates. 



PLATE 7. ELM {Uimiis ameruana). 




^■A 


i^'Hiii 


Ij^v 




p^r ''^^^1 


MBi^ '^^irf:*-!-'-^ 


■W ^ I 




E T" «P '^.' i:?? 


i 









ELM. 



{Ulnius.) 

The different species of elm are distributed over the cold 
and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere, save 
western United States and Canada. A high degree of perfec- 
tion is attained in eastern North America, where trees are 
greatly prized for their form and appearance. 

The foliage of the elm is concentrated at the top, and the 
absence of lower branches causes it to be a good tree to plant 
near houses or along streets. 
Much of the wood is tough, fibrous, 
durable, strong, hard, heavy, and, 
because it is so often cross- 
grained, difficult to split and work. 
The large pores of the spring 
wood arranged in one or several 
rows mark the annual deposit, 
while the minute pores of the 
sunmier wood arranged in con- 
centric wavy lines are so peculiar 
as to distinguish this wood from 
all others. The tall, straight trunks afford pieces of con- 
siderable size. Elm piles sustain constant and severe shocks 
for long intervals. The grain arrangement of elm is often 
very beautiful, so that it is increasingly used for decoration. 
It is more commonly employed in the construction of cars, 
wagons, boats, agricultural implements, machinery, and fur- 
niture. 

The shape of the trees is so marked as to cause them to be 
easily noted. Fifteen or sixteen species have been recognized. 
Five are known to exist in the eastern American forests, and 
all of them furnish good wood of commercial importance. 
Ulmus was the ancient name of the elm. 




Elm ( Uliniis americaiia). 



Geo. B. Emerson's '-Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts." 



35 



36 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Elm. Uhnus americana JJiin. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

W'liite Elm (local and common name). 

Water Elm (Miss., Tex., Ark., Mo., 111., la., Mich., Minn., 

Neb.). 
Elm (Mass., R. L, Conn., N. }., Pa., N. C, S. C, la., Wis.). 
American Elm (Vt., INIass., R. L, N. Y., Del., Pa., N. C, 

Miss., Tex., 111., Ohio, Kans., Neb., Mich,, Minn.). 

Locality. 

East of Rocky Mountains, Newfoundland to Florida, westward 
intermittently to Dakota, Nebraska, and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to seven feet in 
diameter. Characteristic and beautiful form, smooth buds; 
leaves, smaller than those of Slippery-elm, are rough only when 
rubbed one way. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white, rather 
coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, tough, fibrous, difficult to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Flooring, wheel-stock, cooperage, ship-building, flumes, piles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
34 (U. S. Forestry Division,)* 
40. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,540,000 (average of 18 tests by U, S, Forestry Div.).* 

1,060,000. 

IModulus of Rupture. 

10,300 (average of 18 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
12, 100. 

Remarks. 

The concentration of foliage at top, together with the form of 
the tree, renders it valuable in landscape work. It does not 
cause dense shade. Elm and silver-maple trees are among 
the first to show life in spring. Discarded brownish scales 
then cover ground iij vicinity. 

* See page 6. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 37 

Cork Elm. Ulmus racemosa Thomas. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cork Elm (local and common Rock Elm (R. I., W. Va. ,Ky., 

name). Mo., 111., Wis., la., Mich., 

Hickory Elm (Mo., 111., Ind., Nebr.). 

la.). White Elm (Ont.). 

Cliff Elm (Wis.). 

Locality. 

Quebec and Vermont, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Tennessee. Best developed in southern Ontario and 
Michigan. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Thick, corky, irregular projections give bark a shaggy appear- 
ance and mark the species. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, often tinged with red ; sapwood 
yellowish or greenish white. Compact structure, fibres inter- 
laced. 

'Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, very strong, tough, difficult to split, susceptible 
of a beautiful polish, elastic. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy agricultural implements, wheel-stocks, railway ties, sills, 
bridge-timbers, axe-helves, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,550,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15, 100. 

Remarks. 

Cork Elm is the best of the elm woods. 



38 THE PRINCIPyiL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

^, , _, ■r^ J 1^1 ( Ulmus pubescetis Wall. 

Slippery Elm, Red Elm. j ^r^„,,,y^,i^^ Michx. 

Nomenclature, (Sud worth.) 

Slippery Elm, Red Elm (local Redwooded Elm (Term.), 
and common name). Moose Elm (occasional). 

Rock Elm (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Ontario and Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. Best developed in Western States. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to sixty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Characteristic shape, mucilaginous inner bark. Buds hairy. 
Leaves, larger than American Elm, are rough when rubbed 
either way. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown or red, sapwood lighter, compact 
structure, annual layers marked by rows of large open ducts. 
Heartwood greatly preponderates. 

Structural Qualities of V/ood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, and durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used for fence-posts, rails, railway ties, sills, sleigh- 
runners, and wheel-stocks. Mucilaginous bark, employed in 
medicine. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Mucilaginous inner bark renders this species unmistakable. 
This bark is used in medicine. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 39 

Wing Elm, Winged Elm. C/mus a/a/a Michx. 

Nomenclature. 

Wing Elm, Winged Elm (local Mountain Elm, Red Elm (Fla., 

and common names). Ark.). 

Wahoo, Whahoo (W. \'a., N. Elm, Witch Elm (W. Va.). 

C, S. C, La., Tex., K}-., Water Elm (Ala. ). 

Mo.). Small-leaved Elm (N. C). 

Cork Elm, Corky Elm (Fla., Wahoo Elm (Mo.). 

S. C, Tex.). 

Locality. 

Southern United States, Virginia and Florida westward inter- 
mittently to southern Illinois and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty feet or more in height, one to two feet in diameter. Corky 
" wings " on branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Color brownish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, tough. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

740,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,200. 
Remarks. 



MAPLE. 

(Acer.) 

The maples grow on all of the continents of the northern 
hemisphere. Nearly one half of the known species belong in 
China, Japan, and the Orient. The principal European 
species {Acer psciido-platanus) is the European scycamore.* 
The hard or sugar maple (Acer saccJiariini) is one of the 
principal deciduous trees of North America. 

Maple wood t is characterized by its appearance and by its 
fine compact texture. The first quality is so marked that 
selected pieces take rank among the most beautiful of cabinet 
woods ; the last is so pronounced as to fit it for carvings and 
even for type. "Birdseye," "blister," and "curly" 
maples are not from different species, but are the results of 
fibre distortions, possible in some form in any tree of any 
species, but peculiarly liable to occur in the maple ; birdseye 
and blister effects for the most part in the hard maples, curly 
effects in the hard, but generally in the softer, species. The 
distortions do not occur in all trees, and it is seldom possible 
to tell whether the woods are thus figured until after the trees 
have been cut. Maple wood shrinks moderately, stands well 
in protected places, is strong, tough, but not durable when 
exposed. Pores are not arranged in circles, but are scattered 
irregularly throughout the layers. Maple is used for ceiling, 
flooring, panelling, car and ship construction, shoe-lasts, shoe- 
pegs, furniture, school supplies, implements, and machinery. 
Sugar is principally, although not exclusively, present in the 
sap of the sugar maple. X The softer species are sometimes 

* See Sycamore, page 65. 

•f- These notes apply to the American product. 

\ Vermont, New York, and Michigan produce the larger portion of the about fifty 
million pounds of sugar and three million gallons of syrup annually manufactured 
in the United States. Third Annual Report of the Fisheries, Game, and Forestry 
Commissioners, New York, 1897, p. 308. 

40 



PLATE 8. SUGAR MAPLE {Jctfr sacckarum). 





"Curly " Maple Wood {dissection). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 



41 



tapped, and sugar is also present in the sap of other trees, such 
as the butternut and birch. A sugar maple will, on an 
average, produce about twenty-five gallons of sap, containing 
a total of about six pounds of sugar, in a season. 

The Boxelder [Acer ncgtindo) is a true maple, remarkable 
in that it is widely distributed from Canada to Mexico and 
from the Atlantic to the Rocky 
Mountains, on low bottom lands, 
and at elevations of five thousand 
and six thousand feet.* The trees 
are beautiful and, like other maples 
are valued for ornamental purposes. 
The soft, light wood is not partic- 
ularly noted, although occasionally 
used for woodenware, interior finish, 
and paper-pulp. Small quantities 
of sugar are present in the sap of 
this tree. 

The maples may be told by their 
leaves of characteristic shape, but 
chiefly by their two-seeded fruit or 
" keys," the two wings of which ^ ttu , tt j c 

•^ ' ° a, Box Elder, h, Hard or Sugar 

spread differently in different species. Maple, c, Soft or Red Maple. 
The leaves of some species change ^' ^o^ o"" Silver Maple. 
in autumn from green to red and other brilliant colors. Those 
of other species change to yellow Avithout trace of red. Sixty 
to seventy species have been distinguished, nine of which occur 
in North America. 




* Sargent. 



42 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

„ __ , „ J -HB- 1 ( -ittv- sacrlnJium Marsh. 

Sugar Maple, Hard Maple. - , , ,,- 

•^ » ■'^ ' *^ [ Acer sacclunnuni Wang. 

Nomenclature. (Smhvortli. ) 

Sugar Maple, Hard ]Mai)le (local Rock Maple (Me., Vt., N. H., 

and common names). Conn., INIass., R. I., N. Y., 

Black Maple (Fla., Ky., N. C). Tenn., 111., :Mich., la.. 

Sugar Tree (frequent). Kans., Wis., ^linn.). 

Locality. 

Best development Maine to Minnesota; range extends southward 
to Florida and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet and more in height, one and one- 
half to four feet in diameter. The fruit or "maple-key" 
with wings less than right angles ripen in early autumn; one 
seed-cavity is usually empty. Foliage turns to brilliant reds 
and other colors later. Large impressive tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter, close-grained, compact 
structure, occasional "curly," "blister," or " birdseye " 
effects. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Tough, heavy, hard, strong, susceptible of good polish, wears 
evenly, not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, shoe-lasts, piano-actions, wooden type for showbills', 
pegs, interior finish, flooring, ship-keels, vehicles, fuel, 
veneers, rails, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

3,070,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Birdseye, blister, and to a less extent curly and landscape 
effects pronounced in this species. Saccharum refers to sugar 
manufactured from the sap. Hard maple is because of hard- 
ness of wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 43 

o-i Ti/r 1 o iTi Tiff- 1 ( Acer saccharinum Linn, 

Silver Maple, Soft Maple. \ , , , rv 

■^ ' ( Acer dasycarpum JL/ir, 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Silver Maple, Soft Maple (local White Maple (Me. , Vt. , R. I., 

and common names). N. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., 

Swamp Maple (W. Va., Md.). N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., 

Water Maple (Pa., W. Va.). Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., 

River Maple (Me., N. H., 111., Ind., Kans., Nebr., 

R. I., W. Va., Minn.). Minn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Indian Territory. Best devel ->pment in lower Ohio 
River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. Three to 
five feet in diameter. Fine shape, sometimes suggests elm. 
Fruit or "maple-key" with long, stiff, more than right- 
angled wings ripens in early summer. Leaves whitish 
beneath, turn showing yellow, but little or no red, in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood ivory-white, fine grain, 
compact structure. Fibres sometimes twisted, waved, or 
curly. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, brittle, easily worked, moderately strong; receives high 
polish. Not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Wooden ware, turned work, interior decoration, flooring, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,570,000. 
INIoduIus of Rupture. 

'14,400. 

Remarks. 

Waved, spiral, or curly figure pronounced in this species, very 
real resemblance to lights and shadows on planed surfaces. 
Small quantities of sugar present in sap, occasionally utilized. 



44 THE PRINCIP/tL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Red Maple, Swamp Maple. Acer mbnim Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Red Maple, Swamp Maple Water Maple (Miss., La., Tex., 

(local and common names). Ky. , Mo.). 

Soft Maple (Vt., Mass., N. Y., White Maple (Me., N. H.). 

Va., Miss., Mo., Kans., Red Flower (N. Y.). 

Neb., Minn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick and Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota 
and Texas. Wide range. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet and more in height, two and one-half to 
four feet in diameter. Red twigs and flowers in early spring. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter, close- 
grained, compact structure. Red blossoms, twigs, and stems. 
Leaves turn scarlet in autumn. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Easily worked, heavy, hard, not strong, elastic, qualities 
between those of silver and sugar maple. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely used in cabinet-making, turnery, woodenware, gun- 
stocks, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,340,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Occasionally shows "curly" figure. Trees are occasionally 
tapped and small quantities of sugar are obtained from the 
sap. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 45 

Oregon Maple. Acer macrophyllum Ptirsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth.) 

Oregon Maple (Oreg., Wash.). Broad-leaved Maple (Central 

White Maple (Oreg., Wash.). Calif., Willamette Valley, 

Maple (Calif.). Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Alaska to California. Best in rich bottom lands of southern 
Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in 
diameter. Beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Reddish brown, sapwood whitish, close-grained, compact 
structure, occasionally figured. 

Structural Qualities. 

Light, hard, strong; receives polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Locally used for tool-handles, turned work, and furniture. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

30- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 100,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9720. 

Remarks. 

Ornamental tree has been introduced into Europe. Said to be 
one of the most valuable Pacific coast broadleaf woods. 



46 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple. | y.^ZiZtofZ^Moench. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple Stinking Ash (S. C. ). 

(local and common name). Negundo INIaple (111.). 

Red River Maple, Water Ash Three-leaved Maple (Fla.). 

(Dak.). Black Ash (Tenn.). 

Cut-leaved Maple (Colo.). Sugar Ash (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic Ocean westward intermittently to Rocky INIountains, 
jMexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to three feet 
in diameter. Wings to keys are straight or incurved. Leave 
sparingly and coarsely toothed, show yellow but little or no 
red in autumn. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood, cream-white; sapwood similar; close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, not strong, soft. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Woodenware, cooperage, etc., paper-pulp (largely), occasionally 
interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

26. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

82,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7500. 

Remarks. 

A rapid grower. Withstands severe climatic changes. A good 
tree to plant in naturally treeless sections. Sugar is sometimes 
obtained from the sap of this species. The "Boxelder" is 
a true maple. 



PLATKO. WALNUT {Jug/ans). 




Black Walnut Tree {Juir/nns ttigrn). 
Black, White, and English Wahuits. 



Black Walnut Trunk {yiighins tiigrn) 
Black Walnut Wcjuil (yitg/nns nigra). 



WALNUT. 

{Juglans.) 

The English or Royal Walnut {Juglans regia), a native of 
Persia, was the only available species of this genus until the 
introduction of the nearly similar Black Walnut of North 
America.* As oak gave way first to soft woods for construc- 
tion, so it gave way first to walnut for cabinet purposes. The 
wood soon became very fashionable, and exorbitant prices 
were paid for it. Walnut was extremely popular in the United 
States until about 1880, when oak began to resume its place as 
the popular cabinet wood. The nuts of the English or Persian 
walnut are better than those of the American species, but the 
wood of the latter is superior. 

The use of walnut wood for gun-stocks began in Europe, 
the demands early becoming so great that, until the general 
peace following the battle of Waterloo, the greater part of the 
French product was diverted for that purpose, while prices rose 
in England so that six hundred pounds sterling is reported to 
have been paid for a single tree. In spite of the innumerable 
woods that have since been introduced, this one is yet regarded 
as best for gun-stocks. t Walnut is a firm, hard, chocolate- 
colored wood, with pores not arranged in rings but scattered 
somewhat irregularly. The sombre, although rich, color has 
been objected to for some positions. Large excrescences or 
" burrs " are common on foreign trees, particularly those near 
the Black Sea and in Italy. The grain in such growths is 
beautifully irregular, and the wood, known as " burl," is prized 
for veneers. Trees are very scarce, and walnut is now seldom 
seen save in cabinet work or gun-stocks. The related White 
Walnut or Butternut {Jiiglans cinei^ed) affords a less-prized and 

* About the middle of the seventeenth centuiy. 

f France used twelve thousand trees in 1806. (Stevenson's "Trees of Com- 
merce," p. 77.) 

47 



48 THE PRINCIP/1L SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

lighter-tinted wood. The nuts of the walnuts are a source of 
profit. 

Black walnut trees seldom form forests by themselves, but 
occur generally in mixed growth. They grow quickly, but the 
heartwood for which the tree is valued begins to form only 
when the tree is at a considerable age, so that a number of 
years must elapse before a tree can produce wood of the 
desired quality. Trees one hundred years old furnish the best 
quality of wood. 

Walnut trees may be known by their nuts, the husks or 
pods of which adhere unbroken, instead of loosening, com- 
pletely divide into four sections, as with the hickories. 
Juglans is from Jovis, signifying Jove's, and glans, signifying 
acorn. This nut, not the fruit of the oak, was the acorn of 
the ancients.* 

* The ancients considered the shade of the walnut as harmful to all life. It is 
certain some vegetation is affected, probably by properties in fallen leaves. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF ^VOODS. 49 

Black Walnut. Juglans nigra Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth.) 

Black Walnut (local and common name). 

Walnut (N. Y., Del., W. Va., Fla., Ky., Mo., Ohio, Ind., la.). 

Locality. 

Ontario and Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, three to 
eight feet in diameter, A tall handsome tree with rough 
brownish, almost black, bark. Large, rough-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark, rich, chocolate-brown. Thin sapwood much 
lighter, rather coarse-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, easily worked, durable, susceptible to high 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, gun-stocks, also formerly furniture and decora- 
tion. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

I, 550,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12, 100. 
Remarks. 



The English, Royal, or Persian Walnut {Juglans regia) affords 
nearly similar wood. Widely distributed over Europe. Italian trees 
furnish best, French next, and English least desirable, paler and 
coarser wood. Occasional trees in Eastern United States, as New 
York; very plentiful in California. 



50 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Butternut, White Walnut. Juglans cinerea Lmn. 

Nomenclature. 

Butternut, White Walnut Walnut (Minn.), 
(local and common names). White Mahogany. 

Oil Nut (Me., N. H., S. C). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Georgia, westward to Dakota and Arkansas. 
Best in Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Medium size, sometimes seventy-five feet or over in height, two 
to four feet in diameter. Branches widespread; large-sized 
oblong edible nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; sap- 
wood nearly white, coarse-grained compact structure, attrac- 
tive. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, easily worked. Susceptible of high 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Interior finish, cabinet-work. Inner bark furnishes yellow dye. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

25- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 150,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

The sap contains sugar and is occasionally mixed with maple- 
sap in the manufacturing of ' ' maple ' ' sugar. 



ri.A'I'i: 10. IIK KOKV {/Ilcoria ovntn). 




.f ^4m 





■V u . 




HICKORY. 

{Hicoria or Carya.) 

The Hickories occur only in the eastern part of North 
America. They produce woods in which the quahties of 
toughness, elasticity, and resilience are unusually pronounced, 
and since these qualities are greatest in the sapwood, 
hickories are peculiar in that the sapwood is more valuable 
than the heart. Second-growth wood is much prized, since, 
being younger, it contains more of the pliable sapwood.* 

tlickory is not durable when exposed and is more or less 
subject to attack by boring-insects. It is used for implements, 
machinery, carriages, and the like; hickory axe-helves have 
no superiors. The nuts of the shagbark or white hickory are 
a source of considerable profit. The pecan {Hicoria pecan) 
affords wood so inferior as to be little used in construction, 
although it makes an excellent fuel. Pecans are planted in 
many of the Southern States because of the nuts, for which a 
considerable demand exists. 

The Hickories are known by their nuts, the husks or pods 
of which loosen completely from the nut in four pieces, instead 
of adhering unbroken as in the case of the walnuts. The nine 
species are American trees, eight of them being natives of the 
United States. Carya was the Greek name of the common 
walnut. Hickory is said to be derived from the Indian 
powcohicora, a liquor once obtained from the nuts of the 
hickory. 



* See Second-growth Ash. 

51 



52 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

^, , , XT- , 01- lit. 1 TT- 1 ( Hicoria ovata Mill. 

Shagbark Hickory, Shellbark Hickory. -{ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^,^^^^ 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Shellbark or Shellbark Hickory Hickory (Vt., Ohio). 

(local and common name). Upland Hickory (111.). 

Scalybark Hickory (W. Va., White Hickory (la., Ark.). 

S. C, Ala.). Walnut (Vt., N. Y.). 

Shellbark (R. I., N. Y., Pa., Sweet Walnut (Vt.). 

N. C). Shagbark Walnut (Vt.). 
Shagbark (R. I., Ohio). 

Locality. 

Maine to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota and 
Texas. Wide range, best in Ohio valley. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher; two 
and one-half to three feet in diameter. Shaggy bark, thin- 
shelled edible nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory- or cream-colored. 
Close-grained, compact structure. Annual rings clearly 
marked. Medullary rays numerous but thin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very heavy, very hard, strong, exceptionally tough and flexible, 
not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. •"■ 

Largely used for agricultural implements, wheels, and runners, 
axe-handles, baskets, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
51 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

52. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,390,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,900,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

16,000 (average of 137 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

The nuts form an important article of commerce. " Shagbark " 
refers to the shaggy appearance of the bark, 

* See page 6. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 53 



T-.. ^ /TT- 1 \ ( Hicoria glabra Mill. 
Pignut (Hickory). | ^^^^.^,^^ ^j^.^ -^^ ^y^^,^^ 



Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pignut (local and common Bitternut (Ark., 111., la., Wis.). 

name). White Hickory (N. H., la.). 

Black Hickory (Miss., La., Broom Hickory (Mo.). 

Ark., Mo., Ind., la.). Hardshell (W. Va.). 

Brown Hickory (Del., Miss., Red Hickory (Del.). 

Tex., Tenn., Minn.). Switchbud Hickory (Ala.). 

Locality. 

Ontario to Florida, westward intermittently to southern 
Nebraska and eastern Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; 
Two to four feet in diameter. Rather smooth bark. Large 
thick-shelled nuts, kernels often astringent or bitter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light and dark brown, thick sapwood, lighter, 
nearly white. Close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, flexible, tough, strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of shagbark hickory. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

56 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

51- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,730,000 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,460,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

18,700 (average of 30 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

14,800. 

Remarks. 

Nuts are devoured by pigs, whence the name porcina. 

* See page 6. 



54 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



_, , -HT ^ /TT- 1 \ ( Hicoria alba Lirni. 
Mocker Nut (Hickory). | ^^^^,^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^,^^^_ 



Hickory (Ala., Tex., Pa., S. 

C, Neb.). 
Big-bud, Red Hickory (Fla.). 
Common Hickory (N. C. ). 
White Hickory (Pa., S. C). 
Hickory Nut (Ky., W. Va.). 
Hog Nut (Del.). 
Hard bark Hickory (III.). 



Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Mocker Nut, Whiteheart Hick- 
ory (local and common 
names). 

Bullnut (N. Y., Fla., Miss., 
Tex., Mo., Ohio., 111., 
Minn.). 

Black Hickory (Tex., Miss., 
La., Mo.). 

Locality. 

Ontario to Florida, westward intermittently to Missouri and 
Texas. Wide range. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, two and one-half to 
three and one-half feet in diameter. A tall slender tree with 
rough, but not shaggy, bark. Thick shell, edible nut. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich dark brown, thick sapwood nearly white, 
close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of W^ood. 

Very heavy, hard, tough, strong, and flexible. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of shellbark hickory. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
53 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,320,000 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
1,630,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

15,200 (average of 75 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
16,000. 

Remarks. 

The most generally distributed species of the genus in the South. 
Mocker nut or mokernut is said (Britton) to be from a Dutch 
word meaning hammer, or else (Keeler) from disappointing 
quality of nuts. 



* See page 6. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF JVOODS 55 



Pecan, (Hickory). | ^^"'''' ^'''" '^^''''^- 



Gary a olivceforniis Nuit. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pecan (local and common name). 
Pecan Nut, Pecan-tree, Pecanier (La.). 

Locality. 

Valley of Mississippi, southward to Louisiana, Texas, and 
Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, sometimes higher. Two 
and one-half to five feet in diameter. A tall tree, smooth- 
shelled oblong edible nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, tinged with red, sapwood lighter 
brown. Close-grained and compact, medullary rays numerous 
but thin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Heavy, hard, not strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Fuel, seldom used in construction. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
49 (U. S, Forestry Div. ).* 
44. 

Modulus of Elasticity, 

2,530,000 (average of '>,'] tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

940,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

15,300 (average of 37 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
8, 200. 

Remarks. 

Grows on borders of streams in low rich soil. Largest and 
most important tree of western Texas. The sweet edible nuts 
form an important article of commerce. 

* See page 6. 



CHESTNUT, CHINQUAPIN. 

{Castanea.) 

The chestnut is found in the temperature regions of central 
and southern Europe, northern Africa, China, Japan, and 
eastern North America. The wood is valued in construction, 
and the much-prized nuts are regarded as a food rather than a 
confection. European chestnut wood was once high in favor, 
although examination of structures in which it was supposed 
to have been used indicates that in some instances oak had 
been mistaken for it and had been employed in its place. 

The North American chestnut affords a weak, brittle, but 
easily worked and very durable wood, such as is admirably 
adapted for beams, ties, and sills, where lightness and 
durability rather than much transverse strength are required. 
Trees in Europe have attained to great size and age. Micheaux 
mentions one thirty feet in circumference six feet from the 
ground and said to have been standing for a thousand years. 
The famous Mt. Etna chestnut * is reported to have measured 
two hundred and four feet in circumference. Large trunks are 
apt to be hollow, affording brittle, useless wood. The 
botanical relation between the American and European chest- 
nuts is not distinct. Some consider the former a distinct 
species, others a variety only. The name "Chinquapin" 
applies to two distinct botanical species, one, the Castanea 
pumila, closely related to the common chestnut; the other, 
Castanopsis chrysophylla, belonging to the same family 
(Cupuliferae), but to quite another genus. Both afford woods 
resembling, but heavier than, chestnut. 

The chestnut may be known by its large prickly burr, 

* "Castagno di cento cavalli," so called from having sheltered lOO mounted 
cavaliers, measured by Brydon in 1770. It had the appearance of five distinct 
trees, but was probably one trunk. (G. B. Emerson, "Trees and Shrubs of 
Massachusetts," Vol. I, page 192.) 

56 



I'LAIK 11. CllKSTXUT {Custanea Jentata). 




(Courttsy A'. C. (.icoioi^iiiU Survey .) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 57 

containing from one to three thin-shelled, triangular, wedge- 
shaped nuts. Both chinquapins have prickly burrs containing 
one, or sometimes two, sweet edible nuts. Three of the four 
known species of the genus Castanea grow in North America, 
one the common chestnut (Castanea vulgaris) ; another the 
Chinquapin {Castanea piimila) ; the third a plant never attaining 
to the size of a tree. The Chinquapin {Castanopsis clwysa- 
phylla) is the only North American representative of a genus 
including twenty-five species. Keeler says that Castanea is 
from a town of that name in Thessaly, or from another town 
of that name in Pontus. 



58 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

iCastanea deiitata i^jMarsJi) Borkh. 
Cdshitiea vcsca var. atnericana JMichx. 
Castanea vulgaris var. americana A. de C, 

Nomenclature. 

Chestnut (local and common name). 

Locality. 

New England, New York to Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi. 
Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan. Best on western slope of 
Alleghany Mountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, five to twelve feet 
in diameter. Fine characteristic shape, not easily distin- 
guished from Red Oak in winter. Blossoms in midsummer. 
Prickly burrs contain three thin-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood lighter, coarse-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, liable to check and warp in drying. 
Easily split. Very durable in exposed positions. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, railway ties, posts, fencing, sills. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9800. 

Remarks. 

The nuts of the foreign species {C. vesca) as wel! as those of the 
domestic species are much prized. The former are larger and 
the latter sweeter. One of the latest trees to blossom. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROAD LEAF IVOODS. 59 

Chinquapin. Casianea pumila [Lifm.) Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Chinquapin (Del., N. J., Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., 
Ala., Fla., Miss., La,, Tex., Aik., Ohio, Ky., Mo., Mich.). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Florida, jNIississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkan- 
sas, Ohio, Kentucky, IMissouri, Michigan. 

Features of Tree. 

A small tree, sometimes forty-five feet in height, one to two feet 
or over in diameter. Sometimes reduced to low shrub. 
Small prickly burr with single small chestnut-colored nut. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable. 
Coarse-grained, annual layers marked by rows of open ducts. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Rather heavy, hard, strong. Durable in exposed positions. 
Liable to check in drying. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Posts, rails, railway ties, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,620,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 
Remarks. 



The Chinquapin Castanopsis chrysophylla, is a tree with char- 
acteristics between oak and chestnut. Its wood is nearly 
similar to that of the Chinquapin Castanea pumila, and is 
sometimes used for implements. 




BEECH. IRONWOOD. 

(Fagus.) [Carpi nus, Ostiya, etc.) 

Beech is well known on the eastern continent. The 
common beech {^Fagus atropiniiccd) is the only American 

representative. Eastern species 
have figured in literature since the 
time of Virgil. The northern na- 
tions early wrote upon thin tablets 
of beechwood, and boc, bok, and 
biicJic, the northern names for 
beech, finally gave origin to the 

BliECH \IutFUS alropiiiiicea). i i i - a • t i- 

word book." American Indians 
believed that the beech was proof against lightning. 

Beechwood is hard, heavy, strong, not durable when 
exposed, and somewhat subject to attack by insects. European 
engineers employ it to a considerable extent in construction, 
but it is seldom used in America save for indoor finish, furni- 
ture, handles, flooring, and the like. The small edible nuts, 
known as beech-mast, are pressed abroad for a fixed oil, 
resembling and used in place of that from the olive. They 
are seldom gathered in this country, but are devoured by 
animals. Beech-trees have smooth, light-colored bark, and 
are very attractive in their winter appearance. They may be 
recognized earlier in the season by their small prickly burrs, 
each containing two triangular, sharp-edged nuts. There are 
fifteen or more species known to belong to this genus. Fagus 
is from phago, to eat, and refers to the nut. 

The name Ironwood has been applied to Blue Beech 
{Carpinns caroliniand), to the Hornbeam {Ostrya virginiana), 
and to at least eight other North American species affording 
unusually hard and heavy woods, such as are used for handles 

*Liber, the Latin for book, is from iiber, the inner bark of a tree, while 
papyrus, the Latin for paper, is from an Egyptian reed of that name. The 
words "book," "library," and " paper" are thus drawn from trees and plants. 

I Kceler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beecliwood. 

60 



PLATE 13. BEECH {Fagus). 







»' ^^. 1* 



.. if 
\ ■ 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF JVOODS. 6i 

and implements.* Trunks of trees affording these woods are 
generally small and the weight of the woods is so great as 
to prevent their use in construction. 

* Prosopis juliflora, Olneya tesota, Guajacum sanctum, Cliftonia monophylla, 
Cyrilla racemiflora, Exothea paniculata, Bumelia tenax, Bumelia lycioides. 
(Sud worth.) 



62 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



\Fc 



_ , I Fagus atropiinicea [Marsh.) Sudworth. 

Fagus ferrugmea Ait. 



Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Beech (local and common White Beech (Me., Ohio., 

name). Mich.). 

Red Beech (Me., Vt., Ky., Ridge Beech (Ark.). 

Ohio.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Wisconsin 
and Texas. 

Features of Tree, 

Sixty to eighty feet, occasionally higher; two to four feet in 
diameter. Small rough burr contains two thin-shelled nuts. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish, variable shades, sapwood white. Rather 
close-grained, conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, strong, tough, not durable when exposed. Takes fine 
polish. Liable to check during seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, ship-building, handles, and fuel. Car- 
pentry (abroad), wagon-making, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot, 

42. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,720,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

The nuts are seldom gathered in the United States, nor is the 
wood there often utilized in carpentry. This is sometimes 
divided commercially into Red and White Beech, according 
to color of wood. Such division has no botanical basis. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLE/IF IVOODS. 63 

Ironwood, Blue Beech. Carpinus caroliniana Walt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood, Blue Beech (local Hornbeam (Me., N. H., 

and common name). Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., 

Water Beech (R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., N. C, 

Pa., Del., W. Va., Ohio, S. C, Ala.; Tex., Ky., 111., 

111., Ind., Mich., Minn., Kans., Minn.). 
Nebr. , Kans.). 

Locality. 

Quebec to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height. Six inches to occasionally two feet 
in diameter. A small tree, dark bluish-gray; bark resembles 
that of beech save in color. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, thick sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very hard, tough, strong, heavy, very stiff, inclined to check 
during seasoning, not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Levers, tool -handles, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,630,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Prized by wheelwrights in Europe. Resemblance of bluish bark 
to light-gray bark of beech gave rise to name. 



64 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam. Osirya virginina Willi. 

Nomenclature, (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood, Hop Hornbeam Hornbeam (R. I., N. Y., 

(local and common names). Fla., S. C, La.). 

Leverwood (Vt., Mass., R. I., Hardback (Vt.). 

N. Y., Pa., Kans.). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to forty feet in height, one foot or less in diameter. 
The bark exhibits long vertical rows of small squares. Small 
fruit resembles hops. Leaves resemble those of birch. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sometimes white, sapwood lighter 
or white. Close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very strong, hard, heavy, tough, durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, levers, tool-handles, axe-helves, mill-cogs, wedges. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

51- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,950,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Trees over twelve inches in diameter are often hollow. 



I'LATE i;5. SYCAMORK {P/attuti/s ocaaentalis). 




Qiuirtercil SycaiiiDre WckhI 



SYCAMORE. 

{Plat anus.) 

The name Sycamore applies to a miple {Ace7'- pseiido- 
plataniis) in Europe, to a fig-tree {Fiats sycomoriis) in the 
Orient,^ and to the buttonball or plane tree {Platanus) in 
North America. Of the plane trees {Platanus) the common 
or Oriental plane {Platanus oricntalis) is a native of Europe; 
the plane, buttonball, or sycamore tree {Platanus occidcntalis) 
is a native and common tree in eastern North America; and 
the California plane, buttonball, 
or sycamore {Platanus raccniosa) 
is a native of western North 
America. 

The sycamore stands for curi- 
osity, because of its Biblical as- 
sociation with Zaccheus. Many 
European sycamores Avere planted 
by religious persons during the 
middle ages because of the belief 
that they were the trees thus re- 
ferred to in the Bible. 

The woods afforded by the 
American sycamores have unusually complicated, cross- 
grained, but beautiful structures, difficult to work, but standing 
well and valued for cabinet work and small articles. Ameri- 
can trees are often very large. 

American buttonball or sycamore trees are distinguished 
by rough balls \\hich remain hanging on long stems through- 
out the winter. The bark also is shed to an unusual extent ; 
flakes of the outer cover drop away, exposing smooth inner 
surfaces so white as to appear as if painted. Six or seven 
species are included in the genus; three occur in North 
America. Platanus is from platus, signifying broad, and refers 
to the shape of the leaves. 




SVCAMORK (PtdtdllllS 

ccide>italii). 



* Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexicon (B. 15, p. 536). 



65 



66 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sycamore. "1 

Buttonwood. ^ PlaUvms occidentalis Linn. 

Buttonball-tree. j 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

S}xamore, Buttonwood, But- Plane Tree (R. I., Del., S. C, 

' tonball Tree (local and Kans., Nebr., la.), 

common names). Water Beech (Del.). 

Buttonball (R. L, N. Y. , Pa., Platane cotonier, Bois puant 

Fla.). (La.). 

Locality. 

]\Iaine to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska and 
Texas. Best in bottom lands of Ohio and Mississippi River 
basins. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to over one hundred feet in height, six to sometimes 
twelve feet in diameter. Liner bark exposed in white patches. 
Large rough balls or fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, 
compact structures, satiny conspicuous medullary rays. 
Attractive when quartered. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, difficult to work, not strong, stands well when not 
exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Tobacco-boxes, ox-yokes, butcher-blocks, cabinet-work. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 

IModulus of Elasticity. 

I, 2 20,COO, 

IModulus of Rupture, 

9000. 

Remarks. 

Some specimens rank among the largest of American deciduous 
trees. These are usually hollow. The remarkably rigid bark 
does not stretch to accommodate the growth and is thus dis- 
carded to an unusual degree. 



\ 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO/1DLEAF IVOODS. 67 

California Sycamore. Platanus racemosa Nutt. 

Nomenclature. 

Sycamore, Buttonwood, Buttonball Tree, Buttonball (Cali- 
fornia). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, occasionally higher; 
three to four feet in diameter. The bark exfoliates in irreg- 
ular patches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained, 
compact structure, medullary rays numerous and conspicu- 
ous. Beautiful when quartered. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Brittle, very difficult to split and to season. Qualities similar 
to those of P. occidentalis. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Decoration, furniture, similar to P. occidentalis. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

30- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

800,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7900. 

Remarks. 

Hough mentions * a tree twenty-nine feet seven inches in cir- 
cumference. 

* "American Woods," Part 6, p. 36. 



BIRCH. 

{Betula.) 

The birches grow in Europe, Asia, and North America, 
their ranges on the latter continent extending far into the 
north." Their history is remote and probably began with 
attention to the bark rather than to the wood. 

Birch-bark is smooth, pliable, water-tight, and by reason 
of its resinous oils so durable that it often remains intact long 
after the wood inside of fallen trees has disappeared. It is 
separable into thin layers and was early employed as a writing 
material. t Houses have been covered by it and it has been 
used for cordage, utensils, "damp courses," and even rude 
clothing. The American Indians employed it for canoes, 
tents, troughs, and buckets. The wood is hard, heavy, 
strong, fine-grained, and beautiful. It shrinks in seasoning, 
works easily, stands well when not exposed. It is used for 
spools, woodenware, and other small articles, as well as for 
interior finish and cabinet work. Figured birch is one of the 
most beautiful of American cabinet woods. :j; Birch is often 
stained so as to imitate cherry and mahogany; the best imita- 
tions of the latter wood are of birch. Birch is commercially 
divided, according to the quantity of heartwood present, into 
white birch and red birch. The wood is " white " when the 
amount is small, and as heartwood increases with age the 
same tree might at one time afford white and at another red 
wood. 

Birch trees may be known by their more or less laminated 
bark with its peculiar long horizontal lenticles or dashes. The 



* Birch forms large forests in the North. 

\ Pliny and Plutarch agree that the famous h)ooks of Numa Pompilius, written 
700 years before Christ, were upon birch-bark. (Keeler.) 

\ The banquet-hatl of the famous Auditorium Hotel in Chicago is finished in 
birch. (Kidder.) 

68 



PLATE 14. P.IRCH [Bcfida). 




Yellow Bircli Tree {B.Hitla Infra). White Birch Bark (F,'tiii„ popnIifoIia\ 

Yellow Birch Foliage [Belula httea). Bircli Wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO/lDLE/iF JVOODS. 69 

leaves of the several birches differ but little, but the decided 
colors exhibited by their barks give names and serve to distin- 
guish the species. Nine of the twenty-four known species of 
birch occur in North America; six are trees and the others low 
shrubs. Betiila is said to be derived from bitumen. 



70 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Birch. Betida populi/olia Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Birch (local and com- Oldfield Birch, Poverty Birch 

mon name). (Me.). 

Gray Birch (Me., R. I., Poplar-leaved Birch, Small 
Mass.). White Birch (Vt.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Delaware. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty to forty feet in height, about one foot in diameter. 
Durable, laminated, smooth, white bark on large branches 
and on trunk, save near ground; is not very easily detached 
from tree. Tremulous leaves. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, not strong or durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Clothes-pins, shoe-pegs, tooth-picks, paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,036,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1 , 000. 

Remarks. 

The white bark is distinct from that of the paper birch in that 
it does not cover the whole trunk and in that it remains more 
perfectly intact. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 7 1 

Paper Birch, White Birch. Beiula papyri/era Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudv, orth.) 

Paper Birch, White Birch Boleau (Quebec). 

(local and common names). Canoe Birch (Me., Vt., N. H., 

Silver Birch (Minn.). R. I., Mass., N. Y., Pa., 

Large White Birch (Vt.). Wis., Mich., Minn.). 

Locality. 

Northern United States, northward into Canada, valley of the 
Yukon in Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one and one-half to two and 
one-half feet in diameter. Smooth white exterior bark on 
large limbs and trunks away from ground. Brown or orange 
inner surfaces of bark. Splits freely into thin paper-like 
layers. 

Color, Grain, or Appearance of Wood. 

Heartwood brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. 
Very close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, hard, tough, not durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Spools, shoe-lasts, pegs, paper-pulp, fuel, bark used in canoes. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,850,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Starch is said to be manufactured from inner bark by Northern 
Indians. Reaches higher latitude than any American decid- 
uous tree. Forms forests. The name White Birch is because 
of the color of the bark. 



72 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Red Birch. Beiula nigra Litm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Birch (local and common Ala., Miss., Tex., Mo., 

name). 111., Wis., Ohio). 

Black Birch (Fla., Tenn., Birch (N. C, S. C, Miss., 

Tex.). La.). 

River I3irch (Mass., R. I., Water Birch (W. Va., Kans.). 

N. J., Del, Pa., W. Va., Blue Birch (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Texas. Best development in south Atlantic and lower 
Mississippi valley regions. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to eigthy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes larger. Dark red brown scaly bark on trunk. 
Red to silvery-white bark on branches. Bark separates in 
thin paper-like scales curling outward. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white. Close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, rather hard and strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, woodenware, shoe-lasts, ox-yokes. Inferior cask- 
hoops from branches. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
INIodulus of Rupture. 

13, 100. 

Remarks. 

Dark brown bark, whence name Red Birch. Prefers moist 
bottoms, whence name River Birch. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 73 

Yellow Birch. Beiula lutea Michx. f. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Yellow Birch (local and com- Swamp Birch (Minn.). 

mon name). Silver Birch (N. H.). 

Gray Birch (Vt., R. I., Pa., Merisier, Merisier Rouge 

Mich., jNIinn.). (Quebec). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland to North Carolina, westward intermittently to 
Minneosta and Texas. Best developed north of the Great 
Lakes. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet or more in height, two to four feet in 
diameter. A medium-sized tree. Bark on trunk silvery gray 
to silvery yellow, branches green to lustrous or dull brown. 
Bark exfoliates, causing a rough, ragged appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure, satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very strong, and hard, tough, susceptible of high polish. 
Qualities suggest those of maple. Not durable when exposed. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, buttons, tassel-moulds, pill-boxes, spools, and 
wheel -hubs, 

W^eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

40. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2, 290,000, 
Modulus of Rupture. 

17,700. 

Remarks. 

Occasional trees have thin outer bark ruptured, and exhibit 
inner bark of almost metallic yellow. Lutea, signifying 
yellow, alludes to color of bark. Inner bark has pungent, 
pleasant flavor. 



74 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sweet Birch, Cherry Birch. Bclula Ionia Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sweet Birch, Cherry Birch Mahogany Birch (N. C, 

(many locaHties). S. C. ). 

Black Birch (N. H., Vt., River Birch (Minn.). 

Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., Mountain Mahogany (S. C). 

N. J., Pa., W. Va., Ga., 

111., Ind., Mich., Ohio). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland intermittently to Illinois, southward intermit- 
tently along Alleghanies to Kentucky, Tennessee, and 
Florida. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter, dark 
reddish-brown bark, resembling that of cherry; does not 
separate into layers as paper-birch. Leaves, bark, and twigs 
sweet, spicy, and aromatic. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark brown tinged with red, sapwood light brown 
or yellow, close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very strong, hard, receives stains and high satin-like 
polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Woodenware, furniture, ship-building (Canada), fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

47- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,010,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

A common tree in Northern States. Wood often stained so as 
to resemble cherry and mahogany. Essences suggest winter- 
green, contain much salicylic acid, and are used in medicine. 
The name " cherry " is because bark resembles that of cherry. 
" Sweet " is because of essences. 



n.ATK 15. l.OrUST {Ko/iiiii,7, Gleditsia). 




Jilaik Locust IK-e .ui.i J. .Ilk {Rolnnui pscuaa. .:-..: .] ^ 

• *■ Honey Locust (Glc-Jilsia Sriacaiithos). 

Locust Wood. 





LOCUST, MESQUITE. 

{Robinia, Gleditsia, Prosopis.) 

The name Locust applies to species of three distinct 
genera, all of which belong to the family Leguminosae. The 
black locust {Robinia pscudacacia), the honey locust {Gleditsia 
triacanthos), and the Mesquite or honey locust {Prosopis jiili- 
Jlora) are principal representatives of their respective kinds. 
The first-named genus is North American, the other two have 
species on both continents. 

Black locust wood is tough, dur- 
able, unequalled for torsional strength 
and resilience, and is in every way in 
the first rank of American woods. It 
is fitted not only for exposed con- 
structions, but for finer articles ; hubs, 
pins, bolts, and trenails having no 
superiors. Trees develop rapidly z-^' 
when young, heart Avood forming as 
early as the third year. Later growth 
and ultimate commercial value in the 
United States are much affected by 
insect borers, which practically limit 
the usefulness of the species. The 
black locust may be known by its 
clusters of large pea-blossom-shaped 
flowers, its bean-shaped pods, three 
to six inches in length, and by the ^^'^^^^ Locust (/'^^/«m/^«.a'- 

° ■' acacia). 

prickles on the bark. The genus has 

six species, four of which are natives of the United States.* 

Robinia is from Robin, the name of an early French botanist. 

* Three of the four United States species are trees ; the other species of this 
genus grow in Mexico. No one is approximately as important or well known as 
the Black Locust. 

75 




76 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

The black locust has been extensively introduced into Europe^ 
both for ornamentation and for wood.* 

The wood of the honey locust resembles that of the black 
locust, but is seldom used or appreciated save for fencing and 
similarly unimportant purposes. Trees grow rapidly and are 
not subject to the attacks of insects, so that they frequently 
attain to normal proportions. The flowers are much smaller 
than those of the black locust, but the pods are several times 
as long (twelve to eighteen inches). These often curl in 
drying and are thus rolled to some distance by the wind. 
Thorns or spines are present on some individuals and are often 
from three to six inches in length. The foliage resembles but 
is more delicate than that of the black locust. There is 
at least one other American species. Gleditsia is from 
Gleditsch, the name of a botanist. 

Mesquite, also called honey locust, affords wood that is 
hard, heavy, and almost indestructible in exposed positions. 
The tree grows in the desert where vegetation would often 
seem to be impossible. The roots are developed to great size 
by their search for water, and are gathered and burned in the 
absence of other fuel. The trunks are small, but afford posts 
and ties. There are pods filled with rich edible pulp. Sixteen 
or more species belong to this genus, prosopis, of which one 
other, the screw-pod mesquite {Prosopis odorata), is found in 
the United States. 

* Black Locust was introduced into Europe early in the seventeentli century, 
being first cultivated by the son of Jean Robin, for wliom the genus is named. 
Few American species have received such attentfon abroad. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 77 

Locust, Black Locust, Yellow Locust. Robinia pscudacacia Lmn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Locust, Black Locust, Yel- Red Locust, Green Locust 

low Locust (local and (Tenn.). 

common names). Honey Locust (Minn.), 

FalseAcacia (S. C , Ala,, Tex., White Locust (R. I., N. Y., 

Minn.). Tenn.). 

Pea-flower Locust, Post Lo- Acacia (La.). 

cust (Md.). 

Locality. 

Southern Alleghany region, widely cultivated in United States 
east of Rocky IMountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, two to three feet or over in 
diameter. Leaves curl or close at night. Long spikes or 
briers on young branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, thin sapwood, light-greenish yellow. 
Close-grained and compact. Annual layers clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, very hard, strong, and durable under extreme conditions 
of wet and dry. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Long wooden bolts or pins called treenails. Posts, ties, con- 
struction, turnery, ship-ribs, ornamentations, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,830,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

18, 100. 

Remarks. 

Often a low shrub. Extensively planted, particularly in West, 
but subject to attack by borers. One of the most valuable 
of American timber trees. Heartwood is formed very early 
in this species. Pseudacacia means false acacia or imitation 
of acacia. 



78 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Honey Locust. Gleditsia iriacanthos Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Honey Locust (local and com- Honey or Honeyshucks (R.L, 

mon name). N. J., Va., Fla. , Iowa). 

Thorn or Thorny Locust Tree Honeyshucks Locust (Ky.). 

or Acacia (N. Y., N. J., Sweet Locust (S. C, La., 

Lid., Tenn., La.). Kans., Nebr. ). 

Three-thorned Acacia (Mass., Piquant Amourette (La.). 

R. L, La., Tex., Neb., Confederate Pintree (Fla.). 

Mich.). Locust (Nebr.). 
Black Locust (Miss., Tex., 

Ark., Kans., Neb,). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska 
and Texas. Best in lower Ohio River basin. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet or more in height, two to four feet in 
diameter. Frequent long thorns.* Light thin foliage. 
Brown pods contain sweet pulp. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood bright brown or red, sapwood yellowish, annual 
layers strongly marked, coarse-grained, medullary rays con- 
spicuous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood, 

Heavy, hard, strong, very durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Fence-posts, rails, wagon-hubs, rough construction, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot, 

42. 

Modulus of Elasticity, 

1,540,000. 
Modulus of Rupture, 

13, 100, 

Remarks. 

Widely cultivated for landscape effect. Young trees used for 
forming hedges, 

* Thorns plentiful on some individuals, but absent on others. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES—BROADLE/IF IVOODS. 79 

Mesquite. Prosopis JuHjJura [S-wariz) de C. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

]\Iesquite (Tex., N. ]M., Ariz., Honey Pod or Honey Locust 

Cal.). (Tex., N. M.). 

Algaroba (Tex., X. ]M., Ariz., Ironwood (Tex.). 

Cal.). 

Locality. 

Texas, west to San Bernardino Mountains, California. Also 
Colorado, Utah, and Nevada and northern IMexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Some- 
times low shrub. Roots often very large. Pods with sweet 
pulp. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich dark brown, often red. Sapwood clear 
yellow. Close-grained, compact structure, distinct medullary 
rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Weak, difficult to work, heavy, hard, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, fencing, ties, house-beams, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

47- 
^Modulus of Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

6800. 

Remarks. 

A locally important tree. Trees sometimes stunted by fires 
have numerous roots. Large roots used for fuel. 

Holsinger, "Forestry and Irrigation." Vol. VIII, No. 11, p. 447. 



WHITEWOOD OR TULIP-TREE WOOD, POPLAR OR COTTONWOOD, 

{Liriodendron. ) {Populus. ) 

CUCUMBER-TREE WOOD, BASSWOOD, 

{Magnolia.) {Tilia.) 

These trees are not related, but are all noted for woods 
with soft, fine qualities, such as fit them for carvings, wooden- 
ware, and paper-pulp. No one of the woods is durable when 
exposed, and all are used for boxes because they nail without 
splitting. The names are commercially interchangeable. 

The whitewood or tulip tree {Liriodendron tiilipiferd) is a 
native of America and an acclimated tree in Europe. It is the 
sole surviving species of its genus. The wood is soft, stiff, 

I clean, fine, straight-grained, and 

\\\^ -^^' ■ n obtainable in large-sized pieces. 

Much whitewood is made into 
lumber, the wood standing among 
those of the broadleaf series as 
white pine does among the coni- 
fers. Whitewood is particularly 
suitable for carvings. In spite 
of its name it is largely greenish 
w,,T^,-,.,^ r / / / / yellow. It is often divided com- 

Whitewood (LiriodenJfon J 

tuiipifera). mercially, according to color, into 

"white poplar" and "yellow poplar." Trunks often attain 
to a very large size. Matthews mentions a specimen * thirty- 
three feet in circumference. The species may be known by its 
large tulip-shaped flower. Liriodendron is from two Greek 
words meaning lily and tree. 

The poplars, sometimes called cottonwoods because of 
their seeds covered with a cotton-like down, are represented 
on both continents. The wood was made into shields by the 

*F. Schuyler Matthews, "Familiar Trees " (Appleton, 1901), p. 39. 

80 




I'l.ATl-: 1(1. win ri'AVOOlJ or tulip tree {Lirunimanu, Ui/ipifera). 




T 



,,d 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 8i 

ancients, because it was light and tough and would indent 
without breaking. The wood is often substituted for white- 
wood, but is less desirable, although valuable as a basis for 
paper-pulp. The trees may be known by the long drooping 
catkins that appear early in the spring before the leaves, and 
that are followed by white downy seeds that soon escape to 
whiten the surrounding ground. The poplars are noted for 
foliage more or less constantly in agitation. This peculiarity, 
so pronounced in the aspen {PopuliLS treniuloidcs), is due to 
the very long petioles or leaf-stems. The cottonwoods abound 
in many otherwise arid regions of American Western deserts. 

The cucumber trees are of the magnolia family and grow 
in many of the Eastern States. The wood resembles and is 
probably often mistaken for white wood, for which it is a fair 
substitute. The trees may be known by their fruit, which 
resembles vegetable cucumbers. Magnolia is from Magnol, a 
botanist of the seventeenth century. 

Basswood is a name applied to trees known in Europe and 
America as limes, lime trees, lind, linden, tiel, tiel trees, 
bass, and basswood trees. The trees and their wood were 
early esteemed, the first for their shade and appearance, and 
the last for their working qualities, which resemble, but are 
inferior to, whitewood.* The trees are characterized by their 
dense foliage and clusters of small cream-colored fragrant 
flowers, so attractive to bees as to have originated the further 
name bee-tree. Tilia arises from the ancient name for these 
trees. 

* The carvings of Gibbons, a famous English artist, are said to have been made 
entirely of linden, no other available wood being so even-grained and free fi-om 
knots. (Keeler. ) 



82 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yellow Poplar. Liriodendron tuUpi/era Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yel- Hickory Poplar (Va., W. Va., 

low Poplar (local and com- N. C. ). 

mon names). Blue Poplar (Del., W. Va. ). 

Poplar (R. I., Del., N. C, Popple (R. I.). 

S. C, Fla., Ohio). Cucumber Tree (N. Y.). 

Tulip Poplar (Del., Pa., S. C, Canoewood (Tenn.). 

111.). 

Locality. 

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan 
and Mississippi. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in height, six to twelve feet 
in diameter. Tulip-shaped fiowers in spring. Greenish 
cones dry and remain after leaves have fallen. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, thin sapwood, 
nearly white. Close, straight-grained, compact structure, free 
from knots. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, easily worked, durable. 
Hard to split, shrinks little, resembles white pine, stands well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, interior finish, shingles, boat-building, pumps, wooden- 
ware, shelves, the bottoms of drawers. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

26. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Very large trees formerly common. Indians hollowed logs into 
boats. " Some large enough to carry twenty or thirty 
persons" (Hough), whence name canoewood. Tulipifera, 
signifying turbans and to bear, refers to flowers. One of the 
largest as well as most useful of American deciduous trees. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 83 

Poplar, Largetooth Aspen. Populus grandidentaia Michx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Poplar, Largetooth Aspen White Poplar (IMass. ). 

(local and common names). Popple (Me.). 

Largetooth Poplar (N. C. ). Large American Aspen (Ala. ). 

Large Poplar (Tenn. ). 

Locality. 

Nova Scotia and Delaware, westward intermittently to Minne- 
sota, Alleghany ^lountains to Kentucky and Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet high, two feet or more in diameter. Irreg- 
ular points or teeth on margins of leaves. Smooth gray bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Soft, light, weak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Paper-pulp and occasionally woodenware. 

W^eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

The several " poplars " are much prized for paper-pulp. The 
quaking aspen {P. tremuloides) has long leaf-stalks flattened 
vertically to the leaf-surface, so that leaves tremble in slight 
winds. 



84 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Populus dehoides Marsh. 



Cottonwood. , p^^^^^j^^ rnomlifera A U. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cottonwood (local and com- Big Cottonwood (Miss., Neb,). 

mon name). Whitewood (la.). 

Carolina Poplar (Pa., Miss., Cotton Tree (N. Y.). 

La., N. M., Ind., Ohio). Necklace Poplar (Tex., Col.). 

Yellow Cottonwood (Ark., Broadleaved Cottonwood 

la., Neb.). (Colo.). 

Locality. 

Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to Rocky Moun- 
tains. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, four to five feet in 
diameter, occasionally much larger. Long catkins distribute 
cotton-like fibres. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood, dark brown, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, weak, liable to warp, difficult to .season. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Greatly valued in manufacture of paper-pulp, also packing- 
boxes, fence-boards, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

24. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,400,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,900. 

Remarks. 

Monilifera is from the Latin vionolinum, a necklace, and fero, 
to bear, and refers to the long necklace or catkin. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 85 

Black Cottonwood. Populus irichocarpa Torr. and Gr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Black Cottonwood (Oreg., Cottonwood (Oreg., Cal.). 

Cal.). Balm Cottonwood (Cal.). 

Balsam Cottonwood, Balm 
(Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast region, Alaska to California. 

Features of Tree. 

A large tree sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height and 
four to si.x feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light dull brown, sapwood nearly white, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, weak. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Staves, woodenware (local). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

23. 
Modulus of Elasticity, 

1,580,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Largest deciduous tree of Puget Sound district (Sargent). 



86 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 
Magnolia acu7nmata LiJtn. 



Mountain ^Magnolia (]\Iiss., Ky.). 
Black Lin, Cucumber (W, Va.). 
Magnolia (Ark.). 



Cucumber Tree. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 
Cucumber Tree (R. I., Mass., 
N. Y., Pa., N. C, S. C, 
Ala., Miss., La,, Ark., Ky., 
W. Va., Ohio, Ind., 111.). 

Locality. 

New York to Illinois, southward through Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee to Gulf (intermittently). 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to occasionally one hundred feet in height, two to four 
feet in diameter. A large, handsome, symmetrical tree, with 
cones resembling cucumbers. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Heartwood brownish yellow, sapwood nearly white, close- 
grained, compact structure. Satiny, thin medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Qualities similar to white- 
wood. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-making, cheap furniture, flooring, pump-logs, troughs, 
crates, packing-boxes. Used similarly to L. tulipifera. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,310, 000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



9500. 

Remarks. 

Wood resembles and is often sold for tulip-tree wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 87 

Basswood, Linn, Linden. Tilia americana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Basswood, Linn, Linden, Whitewood (Vt., W. Va., Ark., 

American Linden (local Minn.). 

and common names). Yellow Basswood, Lein (Ind.). 

Limetree (R. L, N. C, S. C, Beetree (Vt., W. Va., Wis.). 

Ala., INIinn., La., 111.). White Lind (W. Va.). 

Black or Smooth-leaved Lime- Wickup (IMass,). 

tree (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Georgia, westward intermittently to Nebraska: 
and Texas. W'ide range. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to ninety feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, 
occasionally larger. Large smooth leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light or reddish brown, thick sapwood nearly- 
similar, very straight and close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, easily worked, tough, not strong nor durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Sides and backs of drawers, bodies of carriages, woodenw^are,. 
paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 190,000, 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8300. 

Remarks. 

Basswood refers to the inner bark or " bast," sometimes utilized 
for cordage. The flow^ers attract bees, whence the name bee- 
tree. White Basswood, {Tilia heterophylla, ) is not distinguished 
commercially. 



WILLOW. 

(Salix.) 

The willows are very widely distributed over both con- 
tinents, and their history extends back over a very considerable 
period. Pliny states that Britons used to make voyages in 
boats of willow. The willow mentioned in the Bible was the 
Salix babylonica, or weeping willow, later acclimated in this 
country. 

The principal experience with the tough, light, workable, 
elastic wood has been in Europe. The ancients used it for 
shields, because it was one of the woods that would indent 
without breaking. Lazlett states that it is used for cart-linings 
because it will not splinter when struck by stones. It has 
been used for lap-boards, cricket-bats, keels, paddles, and 
water-wheels. It resists heat and friction and is therefore used 
for lining friction-brakes. Willow charcoal ignites readily and 
is highly esteemed in the manufacture of the finer kinds of 
gunpowder. The bark is used in tanning. The little branches 
have long been associated with baskets and woven work. 
American trees are seldom cut up into lumber, but are valued 
for shade and appearance, and are often planted along the 
banks of streams to prevent erosion. 

Willows grow very rapidly and have a characteristic and 
attractive appearance. They usually prefer low moist places. 
There are so many hybrids and peculiar species as to render 
classification in all cases difficult.* Black willow is the native 
species, oftenest attaining to tree size in North America. The 
White, Crack, Bedford, and Goat Willows (Salix alba, S. fra- 
£-ilis, S. TJisscliana, and S. caprea) are said to afford good 
wood. SalLr is said to be from the Celtic sal, meaning near, 
and lis, water. Salicylic acid is abundantly present in the bark 
of some species. 

* About 140 species and varieties of the willow family have been enumerated. 



PLATE 17. BLACK WILLOW {Sa/ix nigra). 




EXOGENOUS SERIES-BROADLEAF IVOODS. 89 

Black Willow. Sa/ix nigra Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Black Willow (local and com- Willow (N. Y., Pa., N. C, 

mon name). S. C, Miss., Tex., Cal., 

Swamp Willow (N. C, S. C). Ky., Mo., Neb.). 

Locality. 

New Brunswick to Florida, westward intermittently to Dakota, 
Arizona, and California, Mexico, 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. Long 
narrow leaf, characteristic appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, weak, checks badly in drying, readily worked. 
Dents without splitting. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lap-boards, basket-making, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

27. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

550,000, 
Modulus of Rupture. 

6000. 

Remarks. 

Prefers borders of rivers and bottom lands. Many varieties of 
willow grow in the United States. No one is used to any 
extent in construction. 



CATALPA. 

{Catalpa.) 

Many kinds of wood that were formerly plentiful are now 
much less so. Attention is being turned to trees that give 
best results under artificial conditions. Catalpa, formerly but 
little known, now bids fair to become of some importance in 
this connection. 

The catalpa grows rapidly and produces a coarse, brittle, 
weak, but durable and desirable, lumber, well fitted to meet 
the requirements of railways and other branches of construc- 
tion where the annual consumption is the largest. Fifty 
thousand catalpa trees have recently been planted by a Western 
railway at a cost of one cent apiece. Catalpas at Hutchison, 
Kansas, were large enough to cut for posts at the end of six 
years.* A sample tife recently removed fi-om a Western rail- 
Avay was found to be perfect after fifteen years of service. 
Mr. John Brown t mentions specimens sixteen inches in 
diameter seventeen years after planting. The species Catalpa 
speciosa is said to be much the more desirable in that it is 
hardy and reaches a tall upright form. 

The catalpa may be known by its showy flowers, suggest- 
ing those of the horse chestnut. These are succeeded by long 
pods filled with many-winged seeds and often used by children 
as cigfars. 



* U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of Forestry, Bulletins 27 and 37. 
■f The Forester, October, 1900, and November, 1 902. 

Kansas Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bulletin 108, 

90 



PLATE 18. CATALPA {Cata(pa). 




EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLE/IF IVOODS. 9 1 

Catalpa, Hardy Catalpa. Catalpa speciosa Warder. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Catalpa (R. I., N. Y., La., Western Catalpa (Pa., Ohio, 

111., Ind., Mo., Wis., la., Kans., Neb., 111.). 

Neb., Minn.). Cigar Tree (Mo., la.). 

HardyCatalpa(Ill., la., Kan., Indian Bean, Shawneewood 

Mich.). (Ind.). 

Bois Puant (La.). 

Locality. 

Central Mississippi valley, naturalized in many localities. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to sixty feet or more in height, three to six feet in 
diameter; well -formed trunks. Large, white, faintly mottled 
flower, long pod or bean. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood brown, thin sapwood lighter, nearly white, 
coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly 
marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Railway ties, fence-posts, rails, adapted for cabinet-work and 
interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

25. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,160,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

9000. 

Remarks. 

Hardier and better formed trunks than afforded by C. catalpa. 
A rapid grower; sprouts vigorously from stumps. A valuable 
tree, promising to become better known. Foliage subject to 
attack by insects. 



* John P. Brown ( The Forester, October, 1900). 



92 THE PRINClPylL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

( Caialpa Catalpa {Linn.) Karst. 
Catalpa. | Catalpa bigfiomoides Wall. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Catalpa (local and common Indian Bean (Mass., R. I., N, Y., 

name). N. J., Pa.,' N. C, 111.). 

Indian Cigar Tree (Pa.). Catawba, Catawba Tree (Del., 

Smoking Bean (R. I.). W. Va., Ala., Fla., Kans.). 

Cigar Tree (R. I., N. J., Pa., Bean Tree (N. J., Del., Pa., Va., 

W. Va., Mo., 111., Wis., La., Neb.). 

la.). 

Locality. 

Naturalized in many localities east of Rocky Mountains. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to two or more feet in 
diameter. Trunks not well formed. A low, wide tree, large 
heart-shaped leaves, characteristic flower. Long slender pod 
or bean. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood is light pink brown; thin sapwood is nearly 
W'hite. Coarse-grained, compact. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Fence-posts, railway ties, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

27. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8300. 

Remarks. 

Grows rapidly. Pods remain on tree after leaves fall. Some- 
times used as cigars by children. Wood is less desirable than 
C. speciosa. 



PLATE It). SASSAFRAS {Sassajrus offiamiie). 




SASSAFRAS. MULBERRY. 

(Sassafras.) (Morns.) 

The sassafras was one of the first American trees to be 
described in Europe,* where many fictitious properties were 
early credited to its aromatic essences. The wood is not dis- 
tinguished by unusual qualities, but trees are cut for lumber as 
encountered with other and more valuable species in the forest. 
The mucilaginous leaves are of three separate shapes. Some 
have lobes on both sides of the central surface, others have 
one lobe at one side so as to resemble mittens, while yet 
others on the same branch have simple oval shapes. The 
dark-blue berries on bright-red stems are so eagerly devoured 
by birds as to be seldom seen. The characteristic flavor is 
most pronounced in the bark of the root. 

The Red, White, and Black Mulberries are named from 
the color of their fruits. The former, which is the American 
species, has wood resembling that of the sassafras, only in that 
it is not distinguished by unusual qualities. Its leaves, like 
that of the sassafras, are of several shapes on the sam.e tree. 
The very sweet fruit resembles blackberries in form. The 
leaves used in silkworm-culture are from the Russian mulberry, 
a cross between the white mulberry and black mulberry (M. 
alba and M. nigra). t 

* Monardes, a Spanish writer, described the sassafras about half a century 
after the landing of Columbus. 

f Annual Report Chief U. S. Forestry Division, 1887; also Bulletins on Silk, 
published by U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 

93 



-94 THE PRINCIP/tL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Q , j Sassafras officinale Xees and Eberm. 

* ( Sassafras sassafras [Linn.) Karsi. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Sassafras (local and common Sassafac, Sassafrac (W. Va., 

name). Del.). 

Saxifrax, Sasifrax Tree (Fla., Gumbo file (La., negro). 

Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Vermont to Florida, westward intermittently to JNIichigan and 
Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes larger, often low shrub, characteristic odor and 
leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood, delicate brown, thin sapwood yellowish 
white, coarse-grained, annual rings clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, brittle, checks in drying, very durable 
in contact with soil. Slightly aromatic. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Pails, buckets, ox-yokes, fence-posts, and rails. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

31. 

Modulus of Elasticity, 

730,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8500. 

Remarks, 

Leaves and shoots mucilaginous. Bark of root rich in highly 
aromatic essences. Sassafras often forms thickets. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 95 

Red Mulberry, Mulberry. Moms rubra Lmn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Mulberry, Mulberry (local Virginia Mulberry Tree (Tenn. ). 

and common name). Murier Sauvage (La.). 

Black Mulberry (N. J., Pa., 

W. Va.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Nebraska 
and Texas. Best in lower Ohio and Mississippi River basins. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to sixty feet in height, two and one half to three feet in 
diameter. Sweet edible fruit. Dark brown broken bark, 
smooth gray branches. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood, light orange yellow, thin sapwood whitish, 
coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers clearly 
marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, very durable in contact with soil, 
receives good polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Local ship-building, agricultural implements, fencing, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

11,700,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

. II, 000. 

Remarks. 

An ornamental tree. The leaves of this species are not adapted 
to silkworm culture. 



BUCKEYE. HORSE CHESTNUT. 

{/Esculus. ) 

The buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same 
genus. The common horse c\\iist\\\.\t{/Esailus/iippocasta}ui7ii) 
was once thought to have been a native of Asia, but it is 
now quite certain that it originated on the mountains of 
northern Greece. Trees have been cultivated in Europe for 
at least three centuries and are now extensively grown over 

the United States. The 
name buckeye is generally 
applied to such species as are 
natives of North America. 

The woods resemble one 
another in that they are 
soft, straight-grained, easily 
worked, and decay rapid 1\' 
when exposed. They are 
employed to some extent in 
woodenware, artificial limbs, 
and paper-making. The trees 
mav be known by their round 

Horse Chestnut l.-Escii/its hippocastnintvi). ' . . 

prickly pods, contammg 
smooth chestnut-colored bitter nuts. The leaves of the buckeye 
are arranged in groups of five, while those of the horse chestnut 
are in groups of seven. The horse chestnut produces showy 
spotted flowers. There are thirteen species of this genus, eight 
of which are North American. The name "horse chestnut" 
may refer ironically to the coarse nuts, or may arise from the 
fact that they are occasionally eaten by cattle, or from a horse- 
shoe marking seen on young twigs. Hippocastamiui is from 
hippos, a horse, and castanca, a chestnut. The name buckeye 
refers to the appearance of the brown nut through the paler 
husk partly separated when ripe, suggesting the eye of the 
common deer. 

96 




PLATE 20. HORSE CHESTNUT {.-Jiscuius hippocaslanutn). 




EXOGENOUS SERIES-BRO/IDLEAF IVOODS. 97 

Ohio Buckeye, Fetid Buckeye. yEscuius glabra Willd. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye, Ohio Buckeye (local Stinking Buckeye (Ala., Ark.). 

and common names). American Horse Chestnut (Pa. ). 

Fetid Buckeye (W. Va.). 

Locality, 

Ohio River basin to Alabama, portions of Iowa, Kansas, and 
Indian Territory. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to forty-five feet in height. One to one and one- 
half feet in diameter. Yellowish-white flower, succeeded by 
round prickly pod or fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood white, sapwood a little darker, close-grained, fre- 
quent dark lines of decay. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Weak, light, soft, hard to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Artificial limbs, woodenware, paper-pulp, rarely lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

910,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7000, 
Remarks. 



The nearly similar horse chestnut {A. hippocastanum) is forty to 
fifty feet or more in height and two to four feet in diameter. The 
hgiit, weak wood is seldom used. The name horse may be applied to 
the coarse nuts ironically, or may refer to their occasional use by 
cattle, or a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs. 



98 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF fVOOD. 

ySscu/us oclandra Marsh. 



Buckeye, Sweet Buckeye. 



\ ^-Esculus flava A it. 



Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye (N. C, S. C, Ala., Yellow Buckeye (S. C, Ala.). 

Miss., La., Tex., Ky.). Large Buckeye, Big Buckeye 

Sweet Buckeye (W. Va., (Tex., Tenn.). 

Miss., Tex., Mo., Ind.). 

Locality. 

Alleghany Mountains, Pennsylvania to Georgia, westward inter- 
mittently to Iowa and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to seventy feet in height, one to three feet in diameter, 
sometimes low shrub. Large mahogany-colored seed. 

Color, Appearance, and Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood, creamy white, sapwood similar, compact structure, 
close-grained, difficult to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of Ohio Buckeye {A. glabra). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
26.64. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 



PLATE 21. SW1-:i:T (;U.M {Uqiadambar styracijlua). 




GUM. 
{Liquidambar , Nyssa.) 

This name is applied to two unrelated American trees — 
the Sweet or Red Gum [Ligjiidavibar styraciflna)^ a member 
of the witch-hazel family, and the Sour or Black Gum {Nyssa 
sylvatica), which is one of the dogwoods. 

The woods afforded by these two trees are also distinct 
from one another, although both are referred to by the one 
name, gum. The softer Sweet Gum figures in carpentry. 
Selected pieces so resemble black walnut as to be cut into 
veneers and made up into furniture. Sour Gum is harder, it 
splits with difficulty, and is fitted for small work and imple- 
ments, such as wagon-hubs and tool-handles. Both woods 
are close- and often cross-grained, besides being strong, heavy, 
tough, and difficult to season. 

The Sweet Gum tree is characterized by rough, round balls, 
resembling those of the sycamore, by pointed star-like leaves, 
suggesting those of the sugar 
maple, and by corky ridges 
on the bark of younger 
branches. These latter 
cause the bark to resemble 
alligator-skin and give rise 
to the name alHgator-wood. 
Liqiiidavibar refers to gums 
excreted by the tree and 

sometimes used in medicine. Sweet Gum {Liqmdambar styracijliid). 

The Sour Gum bears ovoid bluish-black sour drupes, or fruit 
containing single roughened seeds. The thick oval leaves are 
dark green above and dull or hairy below. The foliage of 
both species becomes brilliant in autumn. 

99 



cfC. 




loo THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Sweet Gum. Liqmdamhar styraafna Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Sweet Gum (local and com- Red Gum (Va., Ala., Miss., 

mon name). Tex., La.). 

Liquidambar (R. I., N. Y., Gum, Gum Tree (Va. , S. C., 

Del., N. J., Pa., La,, Tex., La.). 

Ohio, 111.). Alligatorwood, Blisted(N. J.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Illinois and 
Texas, Mexico. Greatest development in basin of Mississippi 
River. 

Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet 
in diameter. Tall straight trunk, corky ridges frequent on 
branches. Star-shaped leaves turn to brilliant scarlet in 
autumn, round balls on long stems. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown suggesting black walnut, sapwood 
nearly white, close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, rather soft, strong, stiff, not durable when exposed, f 
shrinks and warps badly in seasoning, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Veneers, cabinet-work, substitute for black walnut, shingles, 
clapboards, paving-blocks, wooden plates. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. ' 
37 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
36. 

^Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,700,000 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
I, 220,000. 

]\Iodulus of Rupture. 

9500 (average of 118 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

9200. 

Remarks. 

Wood sometimes commercially known as satin walnut and 
sometimes as star-leaved gum. Large specimens often have 
hollow butts. 

* See page 6. 

f E. C. Woodward, C. E. Division Engineer Texas & Pacific Ry. reports 
"gum" ties good after 5 years' service. They hold spikes well. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF ^VOODS, lOI 

Sour Gum, Black Gum, Tupelo. A^ssa sylvatica Marsh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sour Gum, Black Gum, Tu- Wild Pear Tree, Yellow Gum 

pelo (local and common Tree (Tenn. ). 

names). Gum (Md.). 

Pepperidge (Vt., Mass., R, I., Stinkwood (W. Va.). 

N. Y., N. J., S. C., Tenn., Tupelo Gum (Fla.). 

Mich,, Ohio, Ontario). 

Locality. 

]\Iaine to Florida, westward intermittently to Michigan and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty-five to one hundred feet high, one and six inches to occa- 
sionally four feet in diameter. Ovoid, bluish-black, sour 
fruit, with seed. Horizontal branches, short spur-like lateral 
branchlets. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or yellow, often nearly white, sapwood 
hardly distinguishable, fine grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, not hard, fibres interlaced, therefore hard to work, 
strong, tough, checks unless carefully seasoned, not durable 
in contact with soil. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Wagon-hubs, rollers, ox-yokes, bowls, and woodenware. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,160,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

1 1,800. 

Remarks. 

Limited usefulness because difficult to work. Larger specimen 
in South. Large trees often hollow at butts and sometimes 
higher. 



102 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cotton Gum, Tupelo Gum, Large Tupelo. Ayssa aquatica Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth, ) 

Cotton Gum, Tupelo Gum, Tupelo, Swamp Tupelo (N.C., 

Large Tupelo (local and S. C, La.). 

common names). Olivetree, Wild Olivetree 

Sour Gum (Ark., Mo.). (Miss., La.). 

Locality. 

Virginia and Kentucky, southward. 

Features of Tree, 

Sixty to eighty feet high, two to three feet in diameter. Blue 
oblong fruit one inch or more in length. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, often nearly white, sapwood nearly 
the same. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, not strong, soft, compact, difficult to work. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Turnery, woodenware, roots used as net-floats instead of corks. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Butts of large trees are usually hollow. Parts above are usually 
sound. 



I'LATi: ^2. HOLLY. T.OXWOOI). J,I( IXU.MVIT^II {/Ax, /i/.-xiis, etc.). 




I'lux Tree {/-iiixiis seDiper-t'imis). 
I lolly I'oliage {Ilex opaca). 

Ligiiunivitre Foliage ((7. saiulitni). 



Dogwood Foliage {Cor)iiis /lornii 
Dogwood Bark {Connis Jlo-idn). 
Dogwood Wood. 

Liguuiuvihu Wood- 



')• 



HOLLY. BOXWOOD. LIGNUM YITJE. 

{Ilex.) {Buxus, Corn US, etc.) {Guajacum.) 

The woods afforded by these trees are all demanded in 
small and very perfect pieces to fill needs for which no others 
appear to be perfectly fitted. The holly [Ilex) grows in 
Europe and America, where the brilliant evergreen foliage 
and red berries have long been associated with the Christmas 
season . The name holly is probably a subversion of ' ' Holy. ' ' * 
The true boxwood {B?(xjts scnipcrvircns) attains to some size in 
Europe and Asia, but remains a small shrub in America, where 
it is seldom if ever cut for wood, but is placed as a decoration 
along the borders of walks and gardens. The wood called 
' ' boxwood ' ' in America is not therefore derived from the 
' ' box. ' ' The Lignumvitaes grow in Florida, the West Indies, 
and on the northern coast of South America. 

Holly-wood is noted for its fine, even grain, but chiefly for 
its smooth, ivory-white color, fitting it for the white of inlaid 
work, for carvings and other decorations where white color and 
fine qualities are required. The principal European source is 
the Ilex aquifolium, while in America it is the Ilex opaca. 
Boxwood is, as stated, the name applied to several woods, all 
noted for their fine compact structure, rendering them suitable 
for very fine carvings such as are required in wood-engraving. 
The Eastern product as cut from the true box is so highly 
prized as to be sold by the pound. American boxwood is 
chiefly derived from the Flowering Dogwood, the Mexican 
Persimmon, and the Rose Bay. In Australia several species 
of Eucalyptus are said to be used. Lignumvitc-e is noted for 
great strength and hardness. Layers of fibres alternately cross 
one another so that the wood may be said to crumble rather 
than split. It has no superior for implements that must be 



* "The German name Christdorn, the Danish name Christorn, and the Swedish 
name Christtorn seem to justify this conjecture." (Keeler, quoting Loudon.) 

103 



I04 



THE PRINCIP.4L SPECIES OF WOOD. 



fine, true, and strong, such as the sheaves of pulleys and 
handles of tools. The supply is obtained from two species 
(Guajacum sanctum and Guajacum officinale). 

Holly may be known by its foliage and berries. Box 
{Buxiis) has small, smooth, ovate, dark, evergreen leaves 
joining the stem so as to be opposite one another. The Dog- 
wood is known by its flowers; the Lignum-vitae is a low gnarled 
tree. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF PVOODS. 105 

Holly, American Holly. Ilex opaca Ait. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Holly, American Holly (local White Holly (Va.). 
and common names). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts to Florida, westward intermittently to Indiana 
and Texas. 

Features of Tree. 

Occasionally fifty feet in height and three feet in diameter, fre- 
quently much smaller, particularly in North. Foliage is ever- 
green. Bright red berries remain until spring. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood cream-white, darkening or spotting on exposure. 
Sapwood similar or lighter. Very close-grained, compact 
structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Tough, moderately hard and heavy, easily worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Inlaid work, carvings, scrollwork, turnery, moderately for furni- 
ture and decoration. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

910,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9700. 

Remarks. 

The wood resembles ivory. 



lo6 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Dogwood, Flowering Dogwood. Ckimns florida Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Dogwood, Flowering Dog- False Box-dogwood (Ky.). 

wood (local and common New England Boxwood 

names). (Tenn.). 

Boxwood (Conn., R. I., N.Y., Cornel, Flowering Cornel 

Miss., Mich., Ky., Ind., (Tex., R. I.). 

Ont.). 

Locality. 

New England to Florida, westward intermittently to Minnesota 
and Texas, Sierra Madra Mountains, Mexico. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height, one foot or more in 
diameter. Often low shrub, large white flowers precede 
foliage, red berry in fall. Rough blackish bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich brown, changing to green and red. Sapwood 
lighter, close-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, strong, tough, hard, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Wood-carving, engraving, bearings of machinery, turnery. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

50. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 160,000, 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

The Mexican or Black Persimmon and the Great Laurel {Rho- 
dodendron ynaximum) afford substitutes. Yellowwood {Schae/- 
feria frtitescens) is also known as boxwood. The names 
Dogwood and Poison Dogwood are often applied to the 
sumach. Cornus signifies horn and refers to hardness of 
wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF WOODS. 107 

Lignumvitae. Guajacum sanctum. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Lignumvitae (Fla. ). Ironwood (Fla.), 

Locality. 

Semitropical Florida, Bahamas, San Domingo, Cuba, Puerto 
Rico. 

Features of Tree. 

I'wenty-five feet high, one foot in diameter, ?. low gnarled tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood rich yellow-brown in younger specimens and almost 
black in older ones. Sapwood light yellow. Close-grained, 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very heavy and exceedingly hard, strong, hard to work, brittle. 

Lubricated by water. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Sheaves of ship-blocks, rollers, pulleys, tool-handles. Bearings 
for journals rotating in water. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

71. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,220,000. 
INIodulus of Rupture. 



Remarks. 

Two other species, Gxiajacum officinale and Guajacum arborium, 
afford similar woods not commercially distinguished from 
the above. 



LAUREL. 

{Magnolia, Rhododendron, Arbutus, etc.) 

The name Laurel applies locally or botanically to a number 
of American plants, several of which attain to the dignity of 
trees. 

The Big Laurel or Magnolia {M. graiidijlora) is an orna- 
mental tree of the highest rank, extensively planted in parks 
and gardens of American cities as far north as Washington, 
and also grown in Europe. The wood is suitable for interior 
finish and is also used for fuel. The California Laurel {Umbel- 
hilaria californicd) and the Madrofia or Madrona Laurel 
{Arbutus mcnzicsii) are Pacific coast species of beautiful 
appearance, the strong, heavy, hard woods of which are of 
economic importance. Professor Sargent considers * that the 
former is the most valuable interior or cabinet wood produced 
by the forests of the Pacific coast. The wood of the Madrona 
has little or no place in construction, but its charcoal is used 
in the manufacture of gunpowder. The wood of the Great 
Laurel or Rose Bay {Rhododendron inaxivinni) has been used 
as boxwood. The gnarled roots of the Mountain Laurel or 
calico bush {Kalmia latifolia) are used for rustic hanging- 
baskets, seats, and the like. 

All of the kinds here noted have evergreen foliage. 

* Page 69, "Catalogue Jesup Collection;" Sargent. 

108 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. 109 

California Laurel, Mountain Laurel. Umbellularia califomica Nutt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

California Laurel, Mountain Myrtle-tree, Cajeput, Cali- 

Laurel (Cal., Nev.). fornia Olive (Oreg.). 

California Bay Tree, Spice Californian Sassafras. 

Tree (Cal., Nev., Oreg.). 
Laurel, Bay-tree, Oreodaphne 

(Cal.). 

Locality. 

California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, three to five feet in 
diameter. Evergreen foliage, beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light rich brown, sapwood lighter brown. Close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, receives beautiful polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, cabinet-work, cleats, crosstrees. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

40, 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,510,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

11,400. 

Remarks. 

A valuable Pacific coast cabinet wood. 



no THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Madrona, Madroua Laurel. Arbulns menziesH Pursh. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Madrona, Madrona Laurel Madrone-tree, Manzanita 

(Cal., Oreg.). (Oreg., Cal.). 

Laurel, Laurelwood, Madrone. Madrove (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast from British Columbia to southern California. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, occasionally higher. Two 
to four feet in diameter. Straight well-formed trunk. Ever- 
green foliage. A shrub in the South. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thick heartwood reddish, thin sapwood slightly pink. Close- 
grained; numerous and conspicuous medullary rays 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, strong, checks badly in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Largely for gunpowder, charcoal, also furniture. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot- 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 190,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,000. 

Remarks. 

A beautiful ornamental tree. 



PLATE 2n. PERSIMMON, OSAGE ORANGE, CHERRY 
{Dtos/yros), {Maiiiiru), [rruniis). 








^■^ 
t-- 



Osage Oran^^f Trunk {M. awatttiaca). Wild Pilack Cherry Trunk (/". scroiina). 
Cherry Wood. 

Osage Orani^'c \V..,.d. 

Persinunon Wnod. 



PERSIMMON. OSAGE ORANGE. CHERRY. 

{Diospyros.) {Madura.) [Primus.) 

The Persimmon {Diospyros virginiand) grows in many of 
the central and southern United States and affords a hard, 
tough wood, resembhng fine-grain hickory, that is used for 
implements and other small work. The plum-like fruit is 
remarkably astringent when green, but is sweet, rich, and 
palatable when ripe. The persimmon is a member of the 
ebony family {Ebenacecs), and the extremely close-grained 
heartwood is almost black. The ebony of commerce is 
derived from tropical species of this genus. 

The Osage Orange or Bois T) Wrc [Mac hi?- a aurantiaca) is 
found in the Gulf and neighboring States, and has been culti- 
vated in the North. The wood is unusually hard and strong, and 
is of a yellow color, which, however, darkens with age. It is in 
many ways a unique and serviceable product, widely utilized 
locally in the South, but almost unknown in the North, and 
nowhere sufficiently appreciated. The aborigines made bows 
and arrows of it, whence the name Bois D' Arc. The tree affords 
a useless fruit somewhat resembling the common orange in 
appearance. 

The widely distributed Wild Cherry or Wild Black Cherry 
{Prunus serotina) supplies the cherry wood of commerce. 
This wood is strong, hard, fine-grained, red-colored, and one 
of the most popular decorative woods of the American forests. 
Sweet or Cherry Birch {Bctula lento) is often stained so as to 
imitate it, while it of itself is stained so as to resemble 
mahogany. The wood of the cultivated cherry is not used in 
the United States. The wild cherry bears purplish-black fruit 
somewhat larger than peas, sweetly bitter when ripe. The 
bark is also bitter. It should be noted of these woods that the 
thin heart of the persimm.on is black, that of the Bois d'Arc is 
yellow, and that of the cherry is red. Each receives a high 
polish. 



112 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF fVOOD. 

Persimmon. Diospyros virginiana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Persimmon (local and com- Simmon, Possumwood (Fla.). 

mon name). Plaqueminier (La,). 

Date Plum (N. J., Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut to P'lorida, westward intermittently to Missouri and 
I'exas. 

Features of Tree. 

Occasionally seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Soft pknn-like fruit, astringent when green, sweet when ripe. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark-brown or black, sapwood light-brown, often 
with darker spots. Very thin heartwood. Very close-grained, 
compact structure. Medullary rays conspicuous. Resembles 
hickory. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, etc. Prized for shuttles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

49- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 1 10,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

The astringency of unripe fruit is due to tannic acid. The dried 
and roasted seeds have been used for coffee.* Heartwood is 
not greatly developed in trees under one hundred years of age. 

* U. S. Dispensatory. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES- BROADLE^F IVOODS. 



"3 



Osage Orange. 



Hedge, Hedge-plant, Osage 

(111., la., Neb.). 
Mock Orange (La.)> 
Bow-wood (Ala.). 



( Madura aurantiaca Xiitt. 
i Toxylon purni/enim Raf. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 
Osage Orange (local and com- 
mon name). 
Bois D'Arc (La., Tex., Mo.). 
Bodark, Bodock (Kans. ). 
Yel low-wood, Osage Apple 
Tree (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Southern Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Texas. Cultivated 
elsewhere, as m Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. 

Features of Tree, 

Twenty to fifty feet in height, rarely beyond one and one-half feet 
in diameter. Fruit resembles orange. Long thorns. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood bright orange, turns brown on exposure. Sapwood 
light yellow, close-grained, annual rings clearly marked. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, very strong, flexible, durable in contact with soil. 
Receives beautiful polish. Shrinks in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Fence-posts, piles, telegraph poles, railway ties, paving-blocks, 
occasionally indoor decoration. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



48. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



16,000. 

Remarks. 

Indians used wood for bows, thus the name 
Bois D'Arc, corrupted into Bow Dark or 
Bodark. A valuable wood not enough 
appreciated. Often planted as hedges. 
The fruit is useless. 




Osage Orange. 



114 



THE PRir^CIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 



Pru7ius serolina Ehrh. 

Rum Cherry (N. H., INIass., 
R. I., Miss., Neb.). 

Whiskey Cherry (Minn.). 

Choke Cherry (JMo., Wis., 
la.). 



Wild Black Cherry, Wild Cherry. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 
Wild Black Cherry, Wild 

Cherry (local and common 

names). 
Black Cherry (Me., N. H., 

Vt., R. I., N. Y., Miss., 

Kv., Mich., Wis., Ind., 

Neb.). 

Locality. 

Eastern to Central United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to eighty feet in height. Two to three or more feet in 
diameter. Bitter bark, pea-sized fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellow, fine straight grain^ 
compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, strong, easily worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Cabinet-work, interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

36. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 



11,700. 

Remarks. 

The bitter bark contains medicinal properties 
valued in bronchitis and other troubles. 
The fruit, agreeable when ripe, is also 
used in medicines and cordials. 




Wild Black Cherry 
{rruniis serolina). 



PLATE 24. TKAK AND GREENIIKART ( ZirAw,/, AV</</W/-<7, etc.). 




Greenheart (^Xc'c/,ntu'ru rodia/i). 




Tt-ak ( Tectona gramiis). 




Teak Tree. 




Teakwood. 

Lignumvitce Wood. 



TEAK. GREENHEART. 

{Tectona.) {Nedandra.) 

There are two Teaks ; the principal one ( Tectona grandis), 
a native of Asia, has been called the "Oak" of the Indian 
forests, the other {JJldficldia africand) is an African tree.* 
The Greenheart {^Nectandra rodiali) is of the laurel family and 
grows in South America. The woods, although foreign, are of 
such nature as to have widely established reputations, and each 
has at some time been used in construction. 

Teak suggests oak, save that it is lighter and has a more 
uniform structure. It is very durable, and an oily secretion 
repels insects and preserves iron fastenings. During the 
supremacy of wooden vessels it was regarded as one of the best 
ship-building woods in existence. The grain fits it for carv- 
ings, and it is now known in North America chiefly because 
of this fact. Indian teak is the wood usually referred to. 

Greenheart was early placed among the first class of ship- 
building woods by Lloyd's Register, and is yet taken to Europe 
to some extent for dock- and ship-building and for implements, 
but is seldom found and but little known in the United States. 
It is strong, hard, durable, and extremely heavy, the latter 
quality being so pronounced as to limit its field of usefulness. 

* It was long supposed that African teak was supplied by the species Swietenia 
senegalensis. It is now known that the source is Oldfieldia africana, of the family 
Euphorbiaceae. It is not impossible that wood passing as teak may be derived 
from yet other species. 

115 



Il6 THE PRlNCIP/iL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Teak. Tectona grandis. 

Nomenclature. 

Teak. Teek. 

Indian Oak. Sagwan. 

Locality. 

India, Burma, Siam, Ceylon. 

Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in 
diameter, sometimes larger. Straight trunk, large drooping 
deciduous leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Variable, brownish-yellow, straight, even-grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately hard, strong, easily worked, stands well, oily, 
fragrant, resists termites, preserves iron. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Furniture, ship-building, timbers, backing for armor-plates. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
50 (Laslett). 

IModulus of Elasticity. 
1,338,000 (Lazlett). 
2,100,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 
15,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The oil is thought to preserve iron and repel termites. Burma, 
]\Ialabar, Rangoon, and other teaks take names from districts 
producing them. The distinct African teak {Oldfieldia afri- 
cana) affords wood sometimes marketed as African mahog- 
any and sometimes as African oak. (Forestry methods, see 
" Burma Teak Forests," Sir Dietrich Brandis, "Garden and 
Forest," Vol. IX, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. IX, No. 3, 

P- 139-) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BRO^DLEAF IVOODS. 117 

Greenheart. Nectatidra rodiali. 

Nomenclature. 

Greenheart (local and common name). 

Locality. 

British Guiana and adjacent portions of South America and the 
West Indies. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to sometimes seventy feet in height, two to four 
feet in diameter. A straight tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dark green to chestnut or nearly black, sapwood 
similar. Clean, straight, compact structure, free from knots. 
Numerous pores, annual layers hardly distinguishable. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Exceptionally heavy, strong, and durable, tough, hard, elastic, 
receives high polish, breaks suddenly. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-keels, frames, rollers, turnery, also beams, planks, and 
piles (Europe). In America tops of fishing-rods and very 
occasionally veneers. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
72 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,090,000 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Rupture. 
10,000 (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

Excessive weight unfits it for many purposes. Placed in first 
class of ship-building woods by Lloyd's Register. Formerly 
supposed to repel teredo. Generally exported through 
Demerara to England. 



MAHOGANY. 

{Swietenia, Khaya, Soymida, Cedrela, etc.) 

There are three principal mahogany trees: the Central 
American or true mahogany {Sivictenia mahog-ani), the African 
mahogany {Khaya scncgalcnsis), and the Indian mahogany 
{Soymida febrifiiga). There are also minor species called 
mahoganies.* American mahogany was originally divided by 
dealers into Spanish and Honduras wood, the former from the 
then Spanish-American possessions. A considerable supply 
now comes from Mexico, taking name from port of shipment; 
as, Frontera, Laguna, Santa Ana, Tecolutla, Minatitlan, and 
Tonala, desirability being much in the order named. The 
African field is the latest and probably most important, very 
large quantities of its wood being distributed through English 
markets. 

Mahogany, placed among the second class of ship-building 
woods by Lloyd's Register, was once used to some extent in 
place of oak in naval architecture, but is now so greatly valued 
for decoration as to be employed for little else, save occa- 
sionally the hulls of small pleasure craft. The decorative value 
is due to a combination of beauty, working qualities, and 
durability. Beauty is influenced by both grain and warm red 
color. The latter is generally light, and although it subse- 
quently darkens, in most cases, to a characteristic and rich 
reddish-brown, is usual!}' induced immediately by stains. The 
grain is not only beautiful of itself, but is such as to receive 
those stains and finishing processes thus demanded. Different 
localities produce woods varying in tint and grain. Individual 

* Mahogany and mountain mahogany are names applied in the United States 
to Rhus integrifolia, a native of Lower California and the coast islands, and to 
the following species of the Rocky Mountain Region (Idaho to Arizona): 
Cercocarpus ledifolius, Used for fuel. 

Cercocarpus parvifolius, Used for fuel. 

Cercocarpus breviflorus, Heavy, hard, not common. 

Il8 



PLATE 25. MAHOGANY {Sivu-fniia inahagoni). 




Two Specimens of Wood. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF IVOODS. H9 

trees also differ in desirability. No two are alike. Beautiful 
grain effects are often obtained in ' ' crotches ' ' or junctions 
between trunk and branch, and such pieces bring high prices. 
Mahogany is generally used as a veneer. Layers are glued 
either to some central piece or " core " or else to one another. 
The layers are arranged so as to cross one another's grain, 
and results are usually thought to be more desirable than those 
obtained from solid wood. Few woods glue better, and few 
shrink or distort less when in place. 

' ' Spanish Cedar ' ' {Cedrela odoratd) is a broadleaf wood, and 
not a conifer as is usually supposed. It is nearly related to, and 
usually found and cut with, true mahogany. Lindley * divides 
Cedrelecae into two sub-orders: Swieteniae, including the true 
mahoganies, and Cedrelje, with nine genera and twenty-five 
species distributed over tropical Asia and America. 

Prima vera or white mahogany belongs to Bignoniaceae, 
which also includes the catalpas. 

* John Lindley, Treasury of Botany, p. 243, Part I ; also see Gilford, 
" Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 4, p. 174 ; also Correspondence Messrs. 
Wm. E. Uptegrove & Brother, New York City 



I20 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Mahogany. Swielenia mahogant Jacq. 

Nomenclature. 

Mahogany (local and common Honduras INIahogany (Hon- 

name). duras). 

Spanish Mahogany (Cuba. San Baywood, Madeira, Redwood. 

Domingo, West Indies). 
Mexican Mahogany (Frontera, 

Laguna, Santa Anna, and 

other Mexican ports). 

Locality. 

Florida Keys, Bahamas, West Indies, INIexico, Central America, 
Peru. 

Features of Tree. 

Florida specimens forty-five feet in height and two or more feet 
in diameter. Foreign trees larger. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light, rich reddish brown. Thin sapwood yellow. Smooth, 
fine uniform texture, inconspicuous rings, conspicuous pores, 
sometimes filled with ^vhite substance. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Strong, brittle, durable, holds glue, takes stains and high 
polish, small distortion in seasoning, stands well. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cabinet-work, veneers; formerly ship-building. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

45- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,5 10,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Desirability varies with locality. Spanish mahogany ranks first, 
and harder Mexican woods next. Mahogany is usually 
s'ained. African mahogany is now successfully rivaling the 
American product. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLE/iF IVOODS. 1 21 

White Mahogany. Prima vera. Tabcuia Donnell Smithii {Rose). 

Nomenclature. 

White ^Mahogany, Prima vera (local and common names). 

Locality. 

Mexico and Central America. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy-five feet in height, two to four feet in diameter. 
Tall, slender, a beautiful tree. Numerous golden-yellow 
flowers precede the leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Cream-whita Beautiful, fine grain, resembles mahogany. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Works and stands well. 

Representative Uses of W^ood. 

Cabinet-work, fine furniture, veneers. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

IModulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Many twelve-foot logs imported through San Francisco and 
west. Higher-priced than Red Mahogany. Named after 
discoverer. The wood of the Butternut or White Walnut is 
sometimes sold as White Mahogany. 

See Botanical Gazette, Vol. XVII, 1892, p. 418 ; Contribution U. S. National 
Herbarium, p. 346, Vol. I, No. 9, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Division of Botany. 



12 2 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar. Cedrela odorata Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Spanish Cedar, Mexican Cedar, Cuban Cedar (local and common 
names). 

Locality. 

Mexico, Cuba, West Indies. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to five feet in diameter. Pale- 
yellow flowers. Pods resemble pecan-nuts. Tree suggests 
English walnut (_/. regia). 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Brownish red, straight, even, compact grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood, 

Soft, fragrant, porous, durable. Resembles cedar woods derived 
from coniferous trees (page 167); also resembles mahogany. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Cigar-boxes, boats, fine cabinet-work. May be used in place 
of mahogany. The figured Australian Red Cedar (C. auslralis) 
is locally used for furniture, joinery, carriages, ceilings, door- 
frames, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot, 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks, 

Used for cigar-boxes, because its porous structure assists cigars 
to season, and its odor improves their flavor. The Cuban 
supply is practically exhausted. Mexico is now the chief 
American source. Trees grow rapidly. 

The Toon Cedar (Cedrela toona Roxburgh) of the Orient is the same as the 
Red Cedar {Cedrela atistralis F- v. M.) of Australia. The Cedar [Cedrela odorata 
Blanco) is thought to be distinct Philippine species. 

"Forestry and Irrigation," p. 173, Vol. VIII, No, 4; Writings Dr, Gifiord; 
Correspondence Wm. E. Uptegrove & Brother, and others. 



PLATE 30. EUCALYPTUS {Eticahptus). 







;^i;r 












Blue Gum Trc-e, (£. glohiiliis) California. Blue Gum Bark {E. olohiiliis) California. 

Jarrah Trunk, {E. viarginata') Australia, 
Jarrali Wood {E. tnan^itiata'). 
Karri Wood (/T. lih'crsicolor'). 



EUCALYPTUS. 

{Eucalyptus.) 

These trees, locally known as Stringy-barks, Iron-barks, 
and Gum-trees, are natives of Australia and the neighboring 
islands. Some of the nearly four hundred species have been 
widely transplanted, although none have thus far succeeded in 
this country outside of Florida and California.* The Blue 
Gum {E. globiihis) is the species commonly referred to when 
Eucalyptus is mentioned in North America. 

The Eucalypts are noted for their great size, rapid growth, 
tough, durable wood, and alleged effect upon health. Size is 
illustrated by the species Eucalyptus amygdalina, specimens of 
which have reached a height of four hundred and eighty feet 
and are thus the tallest, although not the largest, trees known 
to man. Growth is shown by specimens of the Eucalyptus 
gunnii, which have grown in excess of two feet a month during 
the first year.t The working qualities of Jarrah, Karri, and 
Tuart woods {E. marginata, E. divej'sicolor, and E. goinpho- 
cephald) are such as to cause them to take high rank in local 
construction. The first two have been preferred beyond all 
other species for paving the streets of London and of Paris. 
Some improvement in health is said to have followed the intro- 
duction of the Blue Gum {Eucalyptus globulus) in malarial 
districts, such as those around Rome. It is not certain whether 
these results are due to the presence of essences in the foliage, 
although medicinal properties are ascribed to them and they are 
used in the preparation of listerine and similar compounds, or 

* First introduced in 1856 ; 1,000,000 specimens thought to be in California, 
1874. A. Kinney, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11. 

f Eucalyptus globulus is said to have grown in California at the rate of two 
feet a month during the first year. 

Works of Baron von Miiller ; Report J. Ednie-Brown, Forest Commissioner, 
Western Australia ; Correspondence M. Francis Chapman, Esq., London ; The 
Forester, Jan. 1900; Abbot Kinney, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11. 

123 



124 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

whether they are clue to the fact that the leaves evaporate 
unusual quantities of water drawn by the roots from the soil."^ 

The trees are characterized by leathery evergreen foliage 
of many shades, such as blue, gray, and green. The leaves of 
young and old trees differ widely in some species. Those of 
young blue gums are bright blue, oval, and stalkless, while 
leaves of older trees have stems, are dark green and sickle- 
shaped. The characteristic odor is the only point in common 
between the foliage of the old and young of this species. 
There are, as stated, nearly four hundred species. 

* 'J'he writer has seen long rows of California blue gums cut down because 
they "dried the soil." The general form of a blue gum tree suggests that of large 
black Locust. 

McClatchie, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 35. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROADLEAF JVOODS. 125 

Jarrah. Eucalyptus ynarginala. 

Nomenclature. 

Jarrah (local and common name). 
Mahogany Gum (Australia). 

Locality. 

Western coast of Australia. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred or more feet in height, two to five feet 
in diameter. Fifty or more feet to lowest branch. Dull, 
sombre appearance. Branches concentrated at top. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Reddish, resembles mahogany, also Kauri wood. 

Structural Qualities of W^ood. 

Heavy, non -absorbent, somewhat oily, durable in contact with 
the soil, receives good polish. Characteristic odor, wears 
thin evenly, not easily inflammable. Said to repel teredo and 
termite. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Marine work, exposed positions, ship-building, bridge timbers, 
street-paving (London and Paris). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
65 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,080,000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
8900 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Chief timber tree of southwestern Australia. Preferred by 
Australian ship-builders. Often confused with Karri. f Speci- 
men forty years old two feet in diameter. Miiller calls it 
the least inflammable of woods. Marginata refers to thick- 
edged leaves. 

* Report Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 

f The Melbourne Argus, December 31, 1892, states that the woods may be 
distinguished by the fact that the ashes of Jarrah are white and those of Karri 
black. Specimens of Jarrah wood seen by the writer were dark, suggesting black 
walimt, those of Karri were red, resembling mahogany. 



126 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Karri. Eucalyptus diversicolor. 

Nomenclature. 

Karri (many localities). White Gum (Australia). 

Locality. 

Australia, New Zealand. 

Features of Tree. 

Two to three hundred and fifty feet in height, four to eighteen 
feet in diameter. A straight graceful tree, lower branches 
often one hundred and fifty feet from ground. Smooth yellow 
white bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Reddish brown, fibres interlaced, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, tough and elastic, non-absorbent, durable, diffi- 
cult to work, wears evenly, characteristic odor. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, railway ties, piles, marine work, pavements 
(London and Paris). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
63 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,890,000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
8000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Once named Eucalyptus colossea because of great size. Rich 
in essential oils. Grows rapidly, one specimen thirty-five 
years old, having reached a height of one hundred and thirty- 
five feet. Distinct from Kauri Pine {D. australis) of New Zea- 
land. Diversicolor refers to leaves the upper and lower sides 
of which differ in color. 

* Report Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— BROylDLEAF IVOODS. 127 

Tuart. Eucalyptus gomphoccphala. 

Nomenclature. 

Tuart (local and common Tooart (Australia). 

name). White Gum (Australia). 

Tewart (Australia). 

Locality. 
Australia. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to six 
feet in diameter. Lower branches forty or more feet from 
ground. Bright, cheerful appearance, straight trunk, gray- 
white bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow, compact appearance, fibres interlaced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very hard, heavy, strong, tough, rigid, durable, seasons well. 
Difficult to split or w^ork. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Keels, buffers, stern-posts, frames, wheel-hubs, shafts. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
67 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,300,000 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus of Rupture. 
9300 (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Highly prized locally. One of the strongest of woods. Gom- 
phoccphala refers to peculiarities in lid of calyx-tube. 



* Report on Forests Western Australia, Presented to Parliament, 1896. 



128 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Blue Gum, Fever Tree. Eucalypius globulus. 

Nomenclature. 

Blue Gum (local and common Fever Tree (Australia), 

name). Balluck (Australia). 

Locality. 

Native of Australia acclimated in southern California and else- 
where throughout the world. 

Features of Tree. 

Two hundred to sometimes three hundred or more feet in height. 
Three to six feet in diameter. Loose, shaggy, exfoliating 
bark.'i^ Leaves sometimes twelve inches in length. Color 
varies with age. Characteristic odor. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Straw color. Sapwood lighter. Indistinct annual rings. Fibres 
interlaced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, durable, difficult to split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Rollers, paving-blocks, ship-building, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
43 to 69 (Mueller). 
57 to 69 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The Eucalyptus of California. The species planted in malarial 
districts. Sanitary powers due to evaporation from large 
leaves or presence of essential oils, which are thought to have 
medicinal qualities. Grows very rapidly. 

* The bark is variable. Some trees of nearly i foot diameter have smooth green 
bark resembling that on young willow saplings; most others have the shaggy bark, 
while from some this has dropped away, exposing a smooth grayish interior sug- 
gesting that of the sycamore. 



PLATE 27. I'lNE (Pinus) 





'-f£fiSfW^iSSi?H 



White PiiH 1 oliai;<j [P. sirobiis). 

\\ liitc I'ine Tree (/*. strobus), 
(Courtesy N. C, Geoi. Survey.) 

Hard Pine Wood (P. palustris). 

Soft or Sugar I'liid Wood {P. lambc'rtiaini). 






11. lid I'iiic Trunk yj'. piiiu^:/ .^■). 
K^lVioto^raph by EtiuntrU / . Davison.) 



NEEDLELEAF WOODS. 

The trees affording- these woods cover large areas in the 
natural forests of the Northern Hemisphere. They exist, but 
to an unimportant extent, in the South. Cedar, larch, and 
cypress figure in ancient history, but woods generally were 
not employed until recent times.* Pine, spruce, hemlock, 
and other so-called soft woods are of this group. 

Needle-leaved woods are characterized by uniform fibre- 
conditions, presence of resins, and lighter weights. The 
vertical structure consists of simple, similar, elongated tubes 
or cells, tapering and finally closing at their ends, known as 
tracheids. These are arranged with more or less regularity, 
and woods are correspondingly easy to work. Pith-rays are 
scarcely visible, and sections do not show pores. Cavities 
known as resin-ducts, and which are not real vessels but rather 
simple intercellular spaces, secrete resins so important in 
making these woods durable and elastic. Trees afford large, 
straight pieces. Woods are used in carpentry and heavy con- 
structions. The total requirement greatly exceeds that for 
hard woods. 

The resinous, usually evergreen, leaves and the cones are 
sufficient to identify these trees. Needleleaf, softwood, conifer, 
and evergreen trees are the same. 

* See Oak, pages ii e^ seq. The woods have always been important in the 
United States. 

129 



PINE. 

(Pinus.) 

These trees were not regarded seriously until about the 
latter half of the eighteenth century. Their woods are now 
the principal ones in carpentry and construction, and are more 
used than any others. They are to the soft woods what the 
oaks are to the hard woods, and they stand at present with 
reference to all woods much as iron does to all metals. Pine 
is prized because of a combination of strength, elasticity, light 
weight, working qualities, and availability, such as fits it for 
those constructions requiring the largest quantities of wood. 

The pines have smooth, straight, solid trunks, usually 
destitute of branches for many feet from the ground. There 
are needle-shaped, more or less cylindrical, evergreen leaves 
from one to many inches in length, gathered in clusters of 
two, three, or five, their number and the fact that they are 
thus clustered being important bases of classification. There 
are also cones of woody overlapping scales. They reproduce 
with difificulty,* and mature so slowly that ultimate survival of 
modern conditions must probably be as cultivated trees. 

Thirty-nine of the seventy known species of pine are found 
in the United States. These with their woods are separated 
into two groups known as /lard and soft pines. The Dantzic 
or Northern pine iPinus silvestris) is the principal European 
species. 

* The roots of most species die with cutting of trees. There is no power of 
producing new shoots. (The pitch pine {Finns rigida) is an exception to this rule.) 
Seeds also have short-lived vitality. Trees are easily raised from fresh seeds. 

130 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 131 



SOFT PINE. 

Soft pine is soft, clean, light, uniform, easily worked, not 
strong, free from knots and resins, and obtainable in large and 
perfect pieces. The wood is whitish and the yearly rings are 
not pronounced. The supply is divided, as obtained from the 
white pine on the one hand, and from the sugar-pine and alL 
other species on the other. 

White pine {Pimis strobus) grows in the north, central,, 
and eastern United States and was formerly the important tree 
of North America, It emphasized the forest industries of 
Maine and of Michigan, and methods connected with harvest- 
ing it have influenced logging practices in many fields. It was 
long the only softwood seriously considered by Northern 
lumbermen. Thirty per cent of the sawn timber and lumber 
used in this country in 1899 was drawn from this species.* 
White pine is diminishing so rapidly as to be already prac- 
tically unobtainable in many places. 

The Sugar Pine {Pinus lambertiana) of the Western States is 
a tree growing at high elevations and is so large as to take rank 
with the redwoods and other of the world's greatest trees. 
Some material is derived from the Western white pine {Pinus 
ficxilis) and one or more minor species. Sugar pine resem- 
bles, but is not as desirable as, white pine. The sweetish 
exudations from this tree are sometimes used in medicine. 



* Roth, U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 22, p. 73. 

"White Pine Timber Supplies." U. S. S. Doc. 55-1, Vol. IV. 



132 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



HARD PINE. 

Hard pine differs from soft pine in that it is hard, resinous, 
heavy, harder to work, and very strong. It also is obtainable 
in large pieces. The orange-yellow wood is more or less 
figured. The annual deposits are pronounced and are separated 
into two sharply divided rings. The supply is chiefly derived 
from the longleaf, shortleaf, Cuban, and loblolly pines of the 
South Atlantic States. 

The longleaf pine (^Pimts palnstris) is distinctly the most 
important of its group. The wood is ideal for heavy construc- 
tions. Beams, docks, trestles, and frames of cars are formed 
of it. The trees afford the greater bulk of turpentine, tar, and 
resin, or "naval stores," produced in this country.* Cuban, 
shortleaf, and loblolly pine woods {P. Jicterophylla, P. 
£cJiinata, and P. tccdii) are nearly similar. Longleaf and 
Cuban pines are seldom separated, while shortleaf and 
loblolly pines are also mixed. Longleaf pine usually affords 
finer structure and more heartwood than Cuban pine. 
Strength and weight averages of both woods are in excess of 
those of shortleaf and loblolly pines. No method of invariably 
telling these four woods apart has as yet been determined, 
(Roth.) Any or all of them are practically liable to be 
delivered in response to a demand for Southern pine, Johnson 
considers shortleaf pine as good as longleaf pine of equal 
Aveight, and suggests environment as a means of identification. 

Palustris, signifying "swampy," is misleading, since 
long leaf pine prefers dry, sandy soil and tracts known as 
"pine barrens." Mitis refers to the soft, delicate foliage of 
shortleaf pine. Tcsda signifies "torch." The trees maybe 
told by differences in their leaves and cones. 

* Manufacture of tar, pitch, etc. (See Report Chief U. S. Div. Forestry, 
1892, p. 356 ; also U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 13.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELE/1F IVOODS. 



133 



Nimes. 


Leaves. 


Cones. 


Number in 
Cluster. 


Length. 


Diameter 
(open;. 


Length. 


Longleaf {F. palttstris) 

vJubd!! {P. hetcruphylla) 

Sliortleaf (/". dchinata) 

Loblolly (/'. ticda) 


3 

2 or 3 
2 or 3 
3 


10 to 15 in. 
8 to 12 " 

2 to 5 " 

5 to 10 " 


4 to 5 in. 
3 to 5 " 

1 to 2 " 

2 to 3 " 


6 to 10 in. 

4 to 7 " 

2 " 

3 to 4 " 



A confusion exists in the naming of the pines. American 
white pine is known as yellow or Weymouth pine in Europe, 
and all American hard pines are there often known as pitch 
pines. The European, Dantzic, or Northern pine has also 
many names, principally depending- on port of shipment. 
Georgia, Southern, Yellow, Hard, and even Pitch pine, are 
interchangeable names in this country. The species palustris 
has thirty local names. 



1"34 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

White Pine. Pinus strobics Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Siidworth.) 

White Pine (local and com- Soft Pine (Pa.). 

mon name). Northern Pine (N. C). 

Weymouth Pine (Mass., Spruce Pine (Tenn.). 

S. C. ). Pumpkin Pine. 

Locality. 

North-central and northeastern United States, northward into 
Canada, southward to Illinois, and along the Alleghanies into 
Georgia, intermittently. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in height. Three to 
six feet in diameter, sometimes larger. Erect impressive 
form. Tufts of five soft, slender, evergreen leaves in long 
sheath. Cones four to six inches long, one inch thick, 
slightly curved. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood cream-white, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight 
grain. Compact structure. Comparatively free from knots 
and resin. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, uniform, seasons well, easy to work, nails without splitting, 
fairly durable. Lightest and weakest of eastern United 
States pines. Shrinks less than other pines. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, matches, spars, boxes, numerous uses. 

Weight of Seasoned W^ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
24 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
24. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,390,000 (average of 130 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
I, 210,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7900 (average of 120 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
8900. 

Remarks, 

Formerly the chief lumber tree of the United States. The 
supply is rapidly diminishing. 

* See page 6. 
"The White Pine." Spaulding. U. S Forestry Bui. No. 22. 
"White Pine" a Study. Mr. Gifford Pinchot. (Century Co.) 
"White Pine Timber Supphes." U. S. Doc. 40 Senate, 55-1, Vol. IV. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 135 

White Pine. Pinus flexilis James. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Pine (Cal., Nev., Utah, Bull Pine (Col.). 

Col., N. M.). Western and Rocky Mountain 

Pine (Utah, Mont.). White Pine (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains, Montana to Mexico. 
Features of Tree. 

Forty to fifty feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. 
Tufts of five rather short, rigid leaves in sheaths. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light, clear yellow, turning red from exposure. 
Sapwood nearly white. Close-grained, compact structure, 
numerous and conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Construction. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 



Modulus of Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus of Rupture, 

8800. 

Remarks. 

This tree forms mountain forests of considerable extent. Valued 
locally. 



136 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD, 

Sugar Pine, Pinus lavibertiajia Dougl. 

Nomenclature. (Sucl worth.) 

Sugar Pine (local and com- Little or Great Sugar Pine, 

mon name). Gigantic Pine. 

Big Pine, Shade Pine (Cal.). White Pine. 

Locality. 

Oregon and California. Best at high altitudes (above 4000 
feet), central and northern California. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to occasionally three hundred feet in height, fifteen 
to sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Cones ten to eighteen 
inches in length, edible seeds. Sweetish exudations. A 
great tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood pinkish brown, sapwood cream-white. Coarse, 
straight-grained, compact structure. 

Sti'uctural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, easily worked, resembles white pme [Pinus s/rodus). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Caipantry, interior finish, doors, blinds, sashes, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot= 

22. 
Modulus of Elasticity, 

1, 120,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Grows at as high elevations as five thousand feet or more above 
tide-water. Forms extensive forests with Balsam Fir 
[Ah'es concolor). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEylF IVOODS. 137 

White Pine. Pinus monticola Dougl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

White Pine (Cal., Nev., Little Sugar Pine, Soft Pine 

Oreg.). (Cal.). 

Mountain Pine, Finger Cone Western White Pine. 

Pine (Cal.). Mountain Weymouth Pine. 

Locality. 

Montana, Idaho, Pacific States, and British Columbia. 
Features of Tree. 

Eighty to one hundred feet in height. Two to three feet in 
diameter, sometimes larger. Foliage resembles, but is denser 
than, white pine. Long smooth cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, sapwood nearly white. Straight- 
grained, compact, suggests white pine {Pi7ius strobus). 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

24. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8600. 
Remarks. 

Found at elevations of seven thousand to ten thousand feet. 
Common and locally used in northern Idaho. 



138 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Georgia Pine, Hard Pine, Yellow Pine, Longleaf Pine. 

Pmus pahis'ris JMUL 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Turpentine Pine. Florida Pine. 

Rosemary Pine. Florida Longleaved Pine. 

N. Carolina Pitch Pine. Southern Pitch Pine. 

Southern Pine. Southern Hard Pine. 

Longleaved Yellow Pine. Southern Heart Pine. 

Longleaved Pitch Pine. Southern Yellow Pine. 

Long Straw Pine. Georgia Pitch Pine. 

Pitch Pine. Georgia Longleaved Pine. 

Fat Pine. Georgia Heart Pine. 

Heart Pine. Georgia Yellow Pine. 

Brown Pine. Texas Yellow Pine. 

Florida Yellow Pine. Texas Longleaved Pine. 

Locality. 

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Virginia to Alabama, inter- 
mittently. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to ninety feet or more in height, one to three feet in 
diameter. Tufts of three leaves, ten to fifteen inches long, in 
long sheath. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood orange, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact 
structure, conspicuous medullary rays. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Hard, heavy, tough, strong, elastic, durable, resinous. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy constructions, ship-building, cars, docks, beams, ties, 
flooring, house-trim, many uses. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38 (U. S. Division of Forestry).* 

43- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,070,000 (average of 1230 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

2, 1 10,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

12,600 (average of 1160 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
16,300. 
Remarks. 

Finer and has less sapwood than Cuban pine. One of the best 
woods for car-building. Principal lumber tree of the South- 
east. 

* See page 6. 
"Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.) 
"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. 
Fernow, Chief.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 139 

Cuban Pine. Pinus heterophylla Siidw. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Cuban Pine, Slash Pine (local Swamp Pine (Fla., Miss.). 

and common names). Bastard Pine, Meadow Pine, 

Pitch Pine, She Pine, She Spruce Pine. 

Pitch Pine (Ga., Fla.). 
Locality. 

Coast region. South Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. 
Features of Tree, 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Color, Appearance; or Grain of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Similar to those of longleaf pine, from which it is seldom 
separated. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

39 (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,370,000 (average of 410 tests by U. S. Div, of Forestry).* 
Modulus of Rupture. 

13,600 (average of 410 tests by U. S. Div. of Forestry).* 
Remarks. '^ < 

Resembles and is marked longleaf pine {Pinus palustris). 



* See page 6. 

-Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow Chief.) 
"Timber Pines of Southern States." U, S. Forestry Bui. No. 13. (Dr B E 
Fernow, Chief.) 



.140 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

^, , , T^. T7- ,, Tk- ( Pinus echinala I\IilL 

Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine. \ r>- -,■ nr- l 

' ( Fmus mitis JMichx. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Common Yellow Pme, Hard Rosemary Pine (N. C. ). 

Pine. Virginia Yellow Pine. 

Spruce Pine (Del., JNIiss., North Carolina Yellow Pine. 

Ark.). North Carolina Pine. 

Bull Pine (Va.). Carolina Pine. 

Shortshat Pine (Del.). Slash Pine. 

Pitch Pine (Mo.). Old Field Pine. 

Poor Pine (Fla. ). 
Shortleaved Yellow Pine 

(N. C). 
Locality. 

Connecticut to Florida, westward intermittently to Kansas and 

Texas. 
Features of Tree. 

Sixty to sometimes ninety feet in height, two to sometimes 

four feet in diameter. A large erect tree; small cones have 

minute weak prickles. Leaves usually in twos from long 

sheaths. 
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Variable, usually hard, tough, strong, durable, resinous, lighter 
than longleaf pine. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, construction, similar to longleaf pine. 
Weight of Seasohed Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 

3°- 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,680,000 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,950,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,100 (average of 330 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
14,700. 

Remarks. 

Affords considerable pitch and turpentine, and is the principal 
species of Northern Arkansas, Kansas, and INIissouri. 



* See page 6. 

"Southern Pine." Molir U. S. Forestry Circular No. 12. 

"Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 13. (Dr. B. E. 
Fernow, Chief.) 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 141 

Loblolly Pine. Pima iceda Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Old Field Pine. Sap Pine. 

Torch Pine. Meadow Pine. 

Rosemary Pine. Cornstalk Pine (Va.). 

Slash Pme. Black Pine. 

Longshat Pine. Foxtail Pine. 

Longshucks. Indian Pine. 

Black Slash Pine. Spruce Pine. 

Frankincense Pine. Bastard Pine. 

Shortleaf Pine. Yellow Pine. 

Bull Pine. Swamp Pine. 

Virginia Pine. Longstraw Pine. 

Locality. 

Delaware to Florida and westward intermittently to Texas. 
Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet or more in height, two to sometimes 
four feet in thickness. Leaves in twos and threes. Scales or 
cones have short straight spines. A large tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Resembles longleaf pine. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
S^ (U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,050,000 (average of 660 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

11,300 (average of 650 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Grows naturally on deforested land, whence the name of Old 
Field Pine. 



* See page 6. . 

'Southern Pine." U. S. Forestry Circuhir No. 12. (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief.) 
'Timber Pines of Southern States." U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 13. (Dr. B. E^ 
Fernow, Chief.) 



142 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD, 

Bull Pine, Yellow Pine, Western Yellow Pine. 

Pinus ponder osa Laws. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Big Pine. Heavy-wooded Pine. 

Longleaved Pine. Western Pitch Pine. 

Red Pine. Heavy Pine (Calif.), 

Pitch Pine. Foothills Yellow Pine. 

Southern Yellow Pine. Montana Black Pine. 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains, westward intermittently to Pacific Ocean. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, six 
to sometimes twelve feet in diameter. Thick, deeply furrowed 
bark. Leaves in tufts of threes. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood is light red, sapwood nearly white. Rather 
coarse grain, compact structure. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Variable, heavy, hard, strong, brittle, not durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers, fuel, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,260,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

Ponderosa, signifying " heavy," refers to great size. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS, 143 

Norway Pine, Red Pine. Pitms resinosa Ait. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Norway Pine, Red Pine (local Hard Pine (Wis.). 

and common names). Canadian Red Pine (Eng. ). 

Locality. 

Southern Canada, northern United States from Maine to 
Minnesota, Pennsylvania. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to ninety feet in height, one to three feet in diameter. 
Reddish blossoms and bark on branchlets. Leaves in twos 
from long sheaths. A tall, straight tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Thin heartwood light red, sapwood yellow to white. Numerous 
pronounced medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, elastic, not durable, resinous. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Piles, telegraph poles, masts, flooring, and wainscoting. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
31 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 
30. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,620,000 (average of 100 tests by U. S. Forestry Division).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

9,100 (average of 95 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes commercially handled with white pine. Unimpor- 
tant as regards turpentine and resin, in spite of specific name, 
which signifies resinous. Long sheaths enable children to 
make chains of leaves. 

* See page 6. 



144 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF H^OOD. 

Pitch Pine. Pinus rigida J\Iill. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Pitch Pine (local and common Yellow Pine (Pa.). 

name). Black Pine (N. C). 

Longleaved Pine, Longschat Black Norway Pine. 

Pine (Del.). Rigid Pine, Sap Pine. 
Hard Pine (Mass.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Georgia, Kentucky. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to sometimes eighty feet in height, one to sometimes 
three feet in diameter. Rigid flattened leaves in threes from 
short sheaths. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown or red, thick sapwood yellow to nearly 
white. Coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, very 
resinous. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong, brittle. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Coarse lumber, fuel, charcoal. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks, 

Rigida refers to rigid leaves. The name " Pitch Pine " is some- 
times applied to all of the Southern pines. The name is yet 
more widely applied in foreign markets. Sometimes called 
Fat Pine. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. US 

Northern Pine, Scotch Pine, Dantzic Pine. Pinus sylvestris Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Dantzic Fir (from place of Stettin Fir (from place of 

shipment). shipment). 

Rigi Fir (from place of ship- Swedish Fir. 

ment). Scots or Scottish Fir. 

Memel Fir (from place of Northern Fir. 

shipment). Redwood, Yellowwood. 

Deal (Local). 

Locality. 

Widespread in Europe, as Scotland, Germany, and Russia; also 
Asia. Naturalized in United States. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter; 
sometimes larger. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish white to yellowish white, sapwood similar. 
Even straight grain (varies with locality). 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately light, hard, tough, and elastic, easily worked (varies 
with locality). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, planks, beams, masts, heavy timber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
34 (Lazlett *) (varies with locality). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,680,000 (Lazlett) (varies with locality). 
1,800,000 (Thurston). 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7000 (Thurston) (varies with locality). 

Remarks. 

Principal soft wood of Europe. Widely distributed; local 
peculiarities once thought to denote different species. Fields 
tributary to Dantzic and Rigi afford best wood. Wood 
" equal to Dantzic Fir" sometimes specified. 

* Table CLXVII, p. 418. 



KAURI PINE. 

(Dammara.) 

This New Zealand tree affords one of the best substitutes for 
northern pine. Although not true pine, it belongs to the same 
family as the pine and other conifers. The light, strong, 
durable, elastic wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suit- 
able for masts. 

The species is universally noted for its resin, which possesses 
the quality of uniting more perfectly than others with linseed 
oil.'^" Kauri gum is thus one of the most valuable constituents 
of good varnish, t The best gum occurs as a fossil, and is col- 
lected by digging over areas known to be fruitful but from 
which trees have long since disappeared. The pieces, varying 
in size from small pebbles to lumps as large as eggs, are 
scraped and otherwise cleansed by natives in the fields. :t 

* It unites with linseed oil at lower temperatures than other gums of its kind. 

f Fossil Kauri gum has sold for one thousand to fifteen hundred dollars 
per ton. 

J One mass of two hundred and twenty pounds has been reported (R. Ingham 
Clark. F.R.G.S.: "Notes on Fossil Resins," published by C. Letts & Co., 
London). 

Correspondence Professor Alvah H. Sabin, New York City ; Messrs. Pratt & 

Lambert, New York City. 

146 



PLATE 28. KAURI PINE {Dnmmara atistr,i/ls). 












»- 

1^?- 



='*;4ilf v^ ' 



--y—f^^y^^ 



L^^^.*'^ 







Fro'H R. Int;lium CLirli, by couj tesy oy Messrs. Pratt £r Lainbeit. 




Fragments ot Gum uiii--qiiarlcr nalurul size. " Fossil gum " at right anil centre. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 147 

Kauri Pine. Dammar a australis. 

Nomenclature. 

Kauri Pine (local and gen- Cowdie Pine (New Zealand 
eral). and many localities). 

Locality. 

New Zealand. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in 
diameter, occasional specimens much larger Small leaves 
resembling those of box. A tall handsome tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Heartwood straw-colored, fine, close, straight grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Moderately hard, light, elastic, strong, seasons well, works 
readily, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Carpentry, masts. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
l^, (Lazlett *) (varies with locality). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 
1,810,000 (Lazlett). 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The species is widely known by reason of its gum. 

* Table CLXXI, p. 426. 



SPRUCE. 

{Picea.) 

The spruces form forests in Europe and North America. 
The black spruce {P. nigra) and the white spruce {P. alba) 
predominate in eastern United States, while the white spruce 
{P. cngcbnanni) is important in the West. The Norway 
spruce, or white fir {P. cxcclsa), is the chief European species. 
American trees prefer Northern ranges characterized by short 
summers and long winters. 

The soft, light, clean woods resemble and are probably the 
best substitute for soft pine. They are apt to warp and twist 
in seasoning and so are not good for posts and trusses. Spruce 
is the principal wood in New England for studding and floor- 
joists. The product is divided commercially and according to 
appearance, but irrespective of species, into white and black 
spruce. These terms depend sometimes, at least, on the 
wide and narrow rings of the black spruce {P. nigra). It 
should be remembered that spruce and fir woods are often 
confused with one another, and that there are trees, as the 
Douglas spruce and Kauri pine or spruce, that are called, but 
are not, true spruces. European spruce is often locally known 
as white deal. 

Spruce trees have single, sharp-pointed, short leaves, 
pointing everywhere, and keeled above and below so as to 
appear four-sided; the cones hang down. Spruce may be dis- 
tinguished from the pines, firs, and hemlocks by the fact that 
pine leaves are longer and in clusters, that hemlock leaves are 
flat, blunt, and two-ranked, and that fir cones point upward. 
The genus picea has twelve species, five of which are North 
American. The resins of the black and red spruce are usred 
as confections. 

T48 



PLATE 39. BLACK SPRUCE {Fuea tw^^m). 




EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 



149 



The following table sets forth the primary distinctions be- 
tween the spruces and the pines, firs, and hemlocks: 



Names. 


Arrangement of Leaves. 


Shape of Leaves. 


Cones. 


Pines (Finns) 


In tufts or clusters. 


Comparatively long. 




Spruce [Fuea) 


Single, scattered, point 


Short, sharp ends. 


Hang down, i to 




in all directions. 


keeled above and 
below. Somewhat 
four-sided. 


6 inches long. 


Fir {Allies) 


Single, scattered, ap- 


Short, blunt ends, flat. 


Stand erect, 2 to 




pear somewhat as in 




4 inches long. 




two ranks. 






Hemlock (Tsuga)., 


Single, scattered, ap- 


Short, blunt ends, flat. 


Hang down, | to 




pear as in two ranks. 




I inch long. 



150 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Black Soruce. -i ^'^^"^ '"^'''' ^'"^- . 

^ ' ( Picea ?nariana Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Spruce (V^t.), Yew Pine, Spruce White Spruce (W. Va. ). 

Pine (W. Va.). He Balsam (Del., N. C). 

Double Spruce (Me., Vt., Minn,). Water Spruce (Me.). 
Blue Spruce (Wis.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania to Minnesota, Alleghany Mountains to North 
Carolina. Best in Canada. 

Features of Tree. 

Forty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Conical shape with straight trunk. Dark foliage. Cones 
remain for several years, being thus distinct from white spruce. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish, nearly white; sapwood lighter. Straight 
grain, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, ship-building, piles, posts, railway 
ties, paddles, oars, "sounding-boards," paper-pulp. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,560,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

A substitute for soft pine. Resin is used as a confection. 

It is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce trees. The 
foliage of the former is darker as a whole, and there are differences in shape and 
persistence of cones. The names double spruce and single spruce are witliout 
evident foundation. Woods exhibit similar qualities and are classed together by 
lumbermen. Red Spruce {Picea rubens) resembles, and is sometimes considered a 
variety of, black spruce. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 15 1 

\\T\>i4.^ c^^,,^^ i Picea alba Link. 

Wnite Spruce. \ r,. j ■ n r-n 

\ rtcea canadensis JMiU. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Single Spruce (Me., Vt., Skunk Spruce (Wis., New 

Minn.). Eng. ). 

Bog Spruce, Cat Spruce Spruce, Double Spruce (Vt.). 

(N. Eng.). Pine (Hudson Bay). 

Locality. 

Northern United States, Canada to Labrador and Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to one hundred feet in height, one to two feet in 
diameter, occasionally larger. Compact, symmetrical, conical 
shape. Foliage lighter than black spruce. Cones fall sooner 
than those of black spruce. Whitish resin. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light yellow, sapwood similar. Straight-grained, 
numerous prominent medullary rays. Compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong (similar to Black Spruce). 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, carpentry, etc. (similar to Black Spruce). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

25. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,450,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Notable as resident of high latitudes. Chief tree of arctic 
forests. Wood, used similarly to black spruce, is substituted 
for white pine. 



152 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVGOD. 

White Spruce. Picea etigelmamii Engelm. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

White Spruce (Ore., Col., White Pine (Idaho), Moun- 

Utah, Idaho). tain Spruce (Mont.). 

Balsam, Engelmann's Spruce 
(Utah). 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountain region, Montana to Mexico, Washington, 
Oregon, and British Columbia (high elevations). 

Features of Tree. 

Frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and some- 
times higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low 
shrub. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. Close, straight 
grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, charcoal, fuel. Bark rich in tannin, sometimes used 
for tanning. 

Weight of Seasoned W'ood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

21. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 140,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

8100. 

Remarks. 

Notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring 
at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. A valuable 
tree of the central and southern Rocky Mountain region. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IV GODS. 153 

Sitka Spruce. Picea si/chensis Traiilv. and Mayer. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Sitka Spruce (local and com- Menzies Spruce, 
mon name). Western Spruce. 

Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., Great Tideland Spruce. 

Wash.). 

Locality, 

Pacific coast region, Alaska to central California. Extends 
inland about fifty miles; prefers low elevations. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more 
in diameter. Flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical 
cones, thick scaly reddish-brown bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse- 
grained, satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

2626. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

A giant among spruces. Forms an extensive coast-belt forest. 



DOUGLAS SPRUCE. 

{Pseudotsuga.) 

The Douglas or Red Pine, Spruce, or Fir, of the Pacific coast 
is neither true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock. 
The name ' ' pseudotsuga ' ' is from pseiido, or false, and tsitga, 
or hemlock. The trees are among the greatest known. The 
wood resembles larch or hard pine in properties, appearance, 
and applications. Trees have been successfully planted in the 
Adirondacks. The species was earlier classed as Pinus 
taxifolia and as Abies taxifolla. 

154 



PLATE 30. DOUriLAS SPRUCE (Psc-uJo/snga ta.xijoHa). 











:;,,,^.rf,.r^^ 







EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF M^OODS. I55 

^ , _ TV 1 -rv- ( Pseiidotsus;o. taxi folia Lam. 

Douglas Spruce, Douglas Fir. -j ^,^„^^,,„*^, ^^^^^^ •• ^^,^^ 

Nomenclature, (Sudworth. ) 

Oregon Pine (Cal., Wash., Douglas Tree, Cork -barked 

Greg.). Douglas Spruce. 

Red Fir, Yellow Fir (Oreg. , Spruce, Fir (Mont.). 

Wash., Idaho, Utah, Mont., Red Pine (Utah, Idaho, Col.). 

Col.). Puget Sound Pine (Wash.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast region, Mexico to British Columbia. Best in 
western Oregon and Washington. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet 
in height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. 
Older bark rough-gray, often looking as though braided. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Heartwood light red to yellow, sapwood nearly white. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Variable, usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
32 (U. S. Forestry Div. ).* 
36 (average of 20 specimens by Soule).f 
32. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

i,68o,oco (average of 41 tests by U, S, Forestry Div.).* 
1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by Soule).f 
1,824,000. 

IModulus of Rupture. 

7,900 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).* 
9,334 (average of 21 specimens by Soule).f 

12,500. 

Remarks, 

Used similarly to hard pine. Lumbermen divide into red and 
yellow woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, 
lighter, and more desirable. These distinctions probably due 
to age. One of the world's greatest trees. 

* See page 6. 

^ Professor Frank Soule, University of California. Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., 
p. 552, Vol. XXIX. 



FIR. 



(Abies.) 

Several of the fir-trees of the western United States attain 
to very great size. The silver fir (Abies grandis) and the 
white fir (Abies concolor) supply much wood in the section in 
which they grow. The balsam fir (Abies balsaniea) of the 
Eastern States is of some commercial importance. 

Fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural 
qualities. It may be told from spruce as well as from pine 

and larch by the fact that fir 
has no resin-ducts. The bal- 
sam fir is distinguishable by 
clear liquid resin which ap- 
pears in blisters in the bark- 
The coarse, weak wood is 
cleaner than the bark would 
indicate. Spruce and fir woods 
are often confused in the 
United States, while pine, 
spruce, and fir are similarly 
confounded in Europe. 

Fir trees have flat, scat- 
tered, evergreen leaves, and cones that stand erect (see foot- 
note under spruce). 

156 




Balsam Fir {Abies balsamea). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF J^OODS. 15 7 

Balsam Fir, Common Balsam Fir. Adies bahamea Mill. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Balsam (Vt., N. H., N. Y.). Blister Pine, Fir Pine (W. 

Fir Tree (Vt.). Va.). 

Balm of Gilead (Del.). Single Spruce, Silver Pine 

Canada Balsam (N. C. ). (Hudson Bay). 

Balm of Gilead Fir (N. Y., 
Pa.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota to Virginia, northward intermittently into Canada. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. 
Sometimes low shrub. Blisters in smooth bark contain thick 
balsam. Erect cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, 
compact structure, satiny. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, not durable or strong, -^eauioiis, easily split. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Occasionally used as inferior lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

23- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 160,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7300. 

Remarks. 

Scattered throughout Northern pineries. Cut when of sufficient 
size and sold with pine or spruce. Cultivated in gardens. 
Exudations known as Canada Balsam used in medicine. The 
poplar (P. balsamifera) is also called Balm of Gilead. 



158 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Great Silver Fir, White Fir. Abies grandis Lindl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Silver Fir (Mont., Idaho). Yellow Y\x (INIont., Idaho). 

Oregon White Fir, Western Lowiantl Fir. 

• White Fir (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Vancouver region, northwestern United States. Best in west 
Washington and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two 
to five feet in diameter. Leaves deep green above, silvery 
below, usually curved. A handsome tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, com- 
pact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, soft, not strong. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot, 

22, 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
]\Iodulus of Rupture. 

7000. 

Remarks. 

Forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes 
much lumber locally. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 159 

White Fir, Balsam Fir. Abies concolor Parry. 

Nomenclature. (Sud worth). 

Silver Fir, Balsam (Cal.). White Balsam (Utah). 

California White Fir (Cal.). Balsam Tree (Idaho). 

Black Gum, Bastard Pine Colorado White Fir, Concolor 
(Utah). ^ Wliite Fir. 

Locality. 

Rocky Mountains and coast ranges, high elevations. 

Featuies of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to five 
feet in diameter. Pale green or silvery foliage. Bark blisters 
filled with clear pitch. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or 
darker. Coarse-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, without odor. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Butter-tubs, packing-boxes, lumber. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

22. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1, 290,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Not always distinguished from the species Abies grandis. 



i6o THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Red Fir. Abies magnifica Murr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

California Red Fir, California Magnificent Fir, Golden Fir 
Red-bark Fir (Cal.). (Cal.). 

Shasta Fir (Cal.). 

Locality. 

California, vicinity of Mount Shasta. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten 
feet in diameter. Large erect cones. Beautiful form. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. Rather close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury 
in seasoning. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Construction, sills, lumber, fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

940,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

9900, 

Remarks. 

Magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree. 



I 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF tVOODS. i6i 

Red Fir, Noble Fir. Adi'es nobilis Lindl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Noble Silver Fir, Noble Red Bigtree, Feather-cone. Red 

Fir. Fir (Cal.). 

Larch (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Northwestern United States. Cultivated in East. 

Features of Tree. 

One to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter. 
Leaves curved. Large, beautiful tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. Rather close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, hard, strong, elastic. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Fitted for house-trimmings. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,800,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

22,200. 

Remarks. 

Grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). With other fir 
forms extensive forests. Sold as larch. 

Peters, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 9 (Sept. 1902), pp. 362, 366. 



HEMLOCK. 
(Tsuga.) 

The hemlocks are distributed over northern United States 
from Maine to Michigan, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the 
Pacific coast. They generally mingle with broad-leaved and 
other needle-leaved species, but occasionally form pure forests 
by themselves. 

The wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, 
brittle, liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp 
and splinter. It holds nails firmly and is used for coarse 
lumber, dimension pieces, paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap 
finish. It should not be relied upon to receive shocks. The 
bark is used in tanning. 

Hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen 
leaves, appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot- 
note under Spruce). Red inner bark. 

J62 



PLATE 31. llEyihOCK {Tsuou). 




Hemlock Tree t^l'snga canaufiisis). Western Ilemluck Tree (7'. hetfrophvlla) 

IlemldL-k Fiiliagc (^7'siiga canadensis). ^^(6500 feet abuve sea-levei.J 

Hemlock Wood ( 7'snga canadensis). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 163 

Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. 

Nomenclature, (Sudworth. ) 

Hemlock (local and common N. Y. , Pa., N. J., W. Va., 

name). N. C, S. C). 

Spruce (Pa., W. Va. ). Spruce Pine (Pa., Del., Va., 

Hemlock Spruce (Vt., R. I., N. C, Ga.). 

Locality. 

Eastern and central Canada, southward to North Carolina and 
Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in 
diameter. Short leaves, green above and white beneath. 
Straight trunk, beautiful appearance. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. Coarse, 
pronounced, usually crooked grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood, 

Light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work, 
retains nails firmly, splintery. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

26. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,270,000, 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

Canadensis refers to Canada, the locality where tree excels. 

The Southern or Carolina Hemlock (T. caroliniana) resembles Hemlock. 

The Western Hemlock ( T. heterophylla, Alaska to California) attains height of 

180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is said to afford heavier and better wood. 

This tree is known by the following names (Sudworth): 

Western Hemlock, Hemlock Spruce Prince Albert's Fir, Western Hemlock 
(Cal.). Fir, California Hemlock Spruce 

Hemlock (Oreg., Idaho, Wash.). (England). 

Alaska Pine (Northwestern Lumber- 
man). 

"The Western Hemlock." Allen, U. S. Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 33. 



LARCH. TAMARACK. 

{Larix. ) 

Larch was well known in the older time, and was prized in 
Europe and the Orient. The two principal American species 
are also called tamarack and hackmatack. The Eastern larch 
or tamarack {L. americand) prefers peculiar low, wet areas 
known as tamarack swamps. The Western tree {L. occiden- 
talis) resembles the European species and prefers dry places. 

Larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. It 
is noted by Pliny and other ancient authors.* Vitruvius 
mentions a bridge that, having burned, was replaced by one 
of larch, because that wood would not burn as readily. t The 
foundation-piles of Venice are said to be of larch. | It should 
be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not 
always beyond question. American larch resembles, if it does 
not equal, true foreign wood. The trees are tall and straight, 
but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber, almost the 
entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles. The 
exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and 
hard pine in weight and appearance. 

Larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is 
deciduous. The little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are 
of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime. The 
appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the 
winter is very gloomy. 

* Pliny, XVI, 43-49 and XVI, 30. 

\ Vitruvius, II, 9. 

X Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 310. 

164 



PLATE ;«. LARCH {Larix). 




L;irch Trees in Winter. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES -NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 165 

rwr 1 T 1. ( Larix aniericana Michx. 

Tamarack, Larch. ^^ ., , j^ v -^ l^ i. 

' ( Larix Idricina {^IJu Koi ) Koch. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack, Larch, American Black Larch, Red Larch 
Larch (local and common (^linn. , Mich.), 

names). Juniper (I\Ie. , Canada). 

Hackmatack (Me., N. H., 
Mass., R.L, Del., 111., Mich.) 
Locality. 

Northern United States and southern Canada, east from Great 
Lakes. 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter.. 
Short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. A slender tree, 
winter aspect gloomy. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse conspic- 
uous grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles^ 
flagstaffs, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

38. 

]\Iodulus of Elasticity. 

1,790,000. 
IModulus of Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

Practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts, 
masts, etc. Seldom cut into lumber in consequence. Grows 
in light swamps often extensive and known as tamarack 
swamp. (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, 
page 157.) 



1 66 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Tamarack Larch. LarLv occidentalis. 

Nomenclature, (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack, Larch (local and Western Larch, Great Western 

common names). Larch, Red American Larch. 

Hackmatack (Idaho, Wash.). Western Tamarack (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Washington and Oregon, intermittently to Montana. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one- 
half to four feet in diameter. A large tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, 
compact structure, annual rings pronounced. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Hard, heavy, strong, durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to 
L. americana. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

46. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

2,300,000. 
Modulus of Rupture, 

17,400. 

Remarks. 

A valuable tree of the Columbian basin. Differs from L. ameri- 
cana in that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. 



PLATE 33. CEDAR (Cedrus, Thuya, etc.)- 




Cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus lihani). 

Red Cedar Bark {jfutiiperus virginiand). 

White Cedar Wood [Thuya occidentalis). 



Foliage of White Cedar (Zl occidentalis). 
Foliage of Red Cedar {J. virginiana). 
Tree of Red Cedar {J. virginiana.). 



CEDAR. 

{Cedrus, Thuya, Chamcecyparis, Libocedr us, Juniper us.) 

Cedar was a name first applied to the true or Lebanon 
cedars {Cedriis) of the Eastern continent, but later to certain 
Arborvitaes {TJmyd), Junipers {^Junipcnis), and Cypresses 
iCJiamcEcyparis), and other trees (see "Spanish Cedar," page 
122) from which durable, fine-grained, more or less fragrant 
woods, known as cedar, are obtained. Cedar was highly 
prized by the ancients, who emplo}-ed it in costly constructions, 
such as the temples of Solomon and of Diana at Ephesus.^f 
Woods known as cedar are divided into so-called Red and 
White Cedars. 

Red Cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fra- 
grant, and of a pinkish-red color. Much wood is derived from 
the Red Cedars, Jiinipcrjis virginia7ia, Jiuiipcrits scopnlonnn, 
and Jjinipcriis barbadciisis, of the Eastern, Western, and 
Southern States respectively. Although seen in construction, 
red cedar is chiefly used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and 
cigar-boxes. One hundred and twenty-five thousand trees 
(125,000) X are annually required for lead-pencils alone. The 
waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of 
camphor to protect woolens. The demand is greater than the 
supply. Trees are easily grown on almost any soil. Trees 
and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease 
after trees have been felled; the wood is then durable. § 

White Cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not "red 

* It is probable that the ancients also used the word Cedar somewhat generally. 

t Pliny, 16, 213 and 16, 216. 

X Notes on Red Cedar, Mohr. Bui. 31, U. S. Division Forestry (Gifford 
Pinchot, Forester). 

§ Several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings known as " cedar apples." 
The branches usually die. Professor von Schrenk recognizes two diseases of the 
wood, white rot {Polyportis jtmiperus Schrenk) and red rot [Polyporus carneus'). 
(Bulletin No. 21, Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. 
Agriculture.) 

167 



1 68 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF fVOOD. 

cedar," and is obtained from several valuable trees.* The 
arborvitais {T. occidcntalis) vary in size from large bushes used 
in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered 
for wood. They are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known 
as cedar swamps. t The giant arborvita^ (7". gigantcd)^ noted 
for its great girth, and the yellow and Lawson Cypresses, are 
important Pacific coast species. The incense cedar, while 
much subject to fungus trouble, is also prized. :|: White cedar 
wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in exposed positions 
as ties and shingles. 

Arborvitais {TJniyd) have very small overlapping leaves 
that form flat rods or fan-like sprays. The cones are oblong, 
less than one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight 
scales separate or open when ripe. The cypresses {^CJiavicEcy- 
paris) exhibit similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, 
roughened, close, or solid globules. The Junipers (^Junipci'ns) 
often, but not always, bear bluish-black berries powdered with 
a whitish-blue bloom. The true cedars {Ccdrus) differ from 
the others in that they have simple needle leaves, an inch, 
more or less, in length, together with cones erect and several 
inches in length. The Deodar or cedar of India is of this 
genus. The principal American red and white cedars are as 
follows : 

Red Cedar. White Cedar. 

Red Cedar {yuniperus virginiana). Arborvitse [Thuya occidetitalis). 

Red Cedar {yitnipa-its scopuhrum). Canoe Cedar {Thuya gigantea). 
Red Cedar (jfuniperns barbadeusis). White Cedar {Chamacyparis thyoides). 

Port Orford Cedar (ChaniiEcyparis laiu- 

soniana). 
Yellow Cedar [Chama-cyparis niitkaensis). 
Incense Cedar {Lihodecriis decurrens). 
Spanish Cedar. (See page 99.) 

* Heartwood often light grayish brown. 

f Trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding, but apart from, such 
swamps. Vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps, which are 
often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges. (Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., 
Vol XXIX, p. 157.) 

X Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 169 

Red Cedar. Juniperus virginiana Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Red Cedar (local and common Savin (Mass., R. I., N. Y., 

name). Pa., Minn.). 

Cedar (Conn., Pa., N. J., Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper 

S. C, Ky., 111., la., Ohio). Bush (local). 
Pencil Cedar, Cendre (La.). 

Locality, 

Atlantic coast, Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to 
Mississippi River in the North, and Colorado River in the 
South. 

Features of Tree. 

Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter. 
Sometimes low shrubs. Dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer 
bark. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. Close, even 
grain, compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant. 
Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests, cigar-boxes. 
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

30- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

950,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,500. 
Remarks. 

Fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. The Western Red 
Cedar (/. scopulorum) and the Southern Red Cedar (/. bar- 
badensis) afford similar wood. 



170 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF WOOD. 

Juniper. Jiinipems occidentalis Hook. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Col., em Cedar (Idaho, Col., 

Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho, Mont.). 

N. M.). Western Red Cedar, Western 

Cedar, Yellow Cedar, West- Juniper (local). 

Locality. 

Calilornia, Washington, and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter, 
often smaller. Long straight trunk in West. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. Very close- 
grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, durable, receives high polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

35- 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Rarely found below an altitude of 6000 feet. Fruit said to be 
eaten by Indians. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. 171 

White Cedar, Arborvitae. T/iuja occidentalis Linn. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Wnite Cedar, Arborvitce (local Atlantic Red Cedar (Cal.). 

and common names). Vitae (Del.), 

Cedar (Me., Vt., N. Y.). 

Locality. 

Northern States eastward from Manitoba and Michigan. North- 
ward, also occasionally southward, as in mountain region of 
North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to sixty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter, 
often smaller. Bruised leaves emit characteristic ptingent 
odor, rapidly tapering trunk. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, 
nearly white. Even, rather fine grain, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. Permits spikes 
to work loose. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and 
boats. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

19. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

750,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

7200. 

Remarks. 

Trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber. Often used 
for telegraph or other poles, or else thin upper ends are used 
for posts, and lower section flattened into ties. 



172 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Canoe Cedar, Arborvite, Giant Arborvite. \ Thuya plkata Don 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Canoe Cedar, Giant Arborvitae Cedar, Giant Cedar, Western 

(local and common names). Cedar (Oreg., Cal. ). 

Red Cedar, Giant Red Cedar, Shinglewood (Idaho). 

Pacific Red Cedar (Wash,, 

Oreg., Cal., Idaho). 

Locality. 

Coast region, California to Alaska, Idaho to Montana. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to two hundred feet in height, two to eleven 
feet in diameter. Four-sided leaves closely overlapping in 
sprays. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood dull reddish brown, thin sapwood nearly white. 
Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers distinct. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Soft, weak, light, brittle, easily worked, very durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Shingles, fencing, cooperage, interior finish, canoes (coast 
Indians). 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Large trees are often hollow at the bottom. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES-NEEDLELEylF IVOODS. 173 

White Cedar. Chamcecyparis thyoides L. 

Nomenclature. (Sudvvorth.) 

White Cedar (local and com- Post Cedar, Swamp Cedar (Del ) 

mon name). Juniper (Ala., N. C, Va.). 
Locality. 

Maine to Florida, Gulf coast to Mississippi, best in Virginia 
and North Carolina. 

Features of Tree. 

Sixty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter. 
Shaggy rugged bark. A graceful tree. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood pinkish to darker brown, sapwood lighter. Close- 
grained, compact structure, conspicuous layers. 
Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Very light, soft, not strong, extremely durable in exposed posi- 
tions, fragrant, easily worked. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Boats, railway ties, fencing, poles, posts, shingles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
23 (U. S. Forestry Div.). 

20. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

910,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.). 

570,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

6310 (average of %'] tests by U. S. Forestry Div.). 

6400. 

Remarks. 

Grows chiefly in swamps. ' ' White cedar posts ' ' last many years. 
Thyoides is from Thuya meaning arborvitae and eidos, the 
Greek for ' ' resemblance. ' ' 



174 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Port Orford Cedar, Lawson Cypress. 

Chanuecxparis laivsoniana JMurr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

White Cedar, Oregon Cedar Ginger Pine (Cal.). 
(Oreg., Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific coast, California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred to sometrmes two hundred feet in height, four to 
twelve (?) feet in diameter. Leaves overlapping in sprays, 
very small cones one-fourth inch in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood yellowish white, sapwood similar. Very close- 
grained. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, hard, strong, durable, easily worked, fragrant, resinous. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Lumber, flooring, interior finish, ties, posts, matches, ship- 
building. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

28. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,730,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

12,600. 

Remarks. 

Resin employed as insecticide. 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. I7S 

Yellow Cedar, Yellow Cypress,) | ^^^^^'^f ^/aT'^''^''"'' 

■^ 3 ( ChamcBcyparis nutkaensisSpach. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Noot.ka Cypress, Nootka Alaska Cypress, Alaska 
Sound Cypress (local). Ground Cypress (local). 

Locality. 

Oregon to Alaska. 

Features of Tree. 

One hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet or more 
in diameter. Sharp-pointed, overlapping leaves, small glob- 
ular cones. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood clear light yellow, thin sapwood nearly white. 
Close-grained, compact structure. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, not strong, brittle, hard, durable in contact with soil, 
easily worked, receives high polish, fragrant. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Ship-building, furniture, interior finish. 

W^eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

29. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

II,OCO. 

Remarks. 

Valuable Alaska timber tree. Commercially not distinguished 
from Pacific Arborvitae. 



176 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Incense Cedar, White Cedar. Libocednis decurrens Torr. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Post Cedar, California Post California White Cedar 

Cedar (local). (local). 

Bastard Cedar, Red Cedar, Juniper (Nevada). 

Locality. 

California and Oregon. 

Features of Tree. 

Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, occa- 
sionally higher, three to six feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter. Close-grained, compact 
structure. Heartwood often pitted. Fragrant. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, brittle, soft, durable. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Flumes, shingles, interior finish. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

25. 
IVIodulus of Elasticity. 



1, 200,000. 
Modulus of Rupture. 

960,000. 

Remarks. 

Subject to attack by fungus, causing the large oval pits in the 
heartwood. Disease ceases upon the felling of trees, (von 
Schrenk Contribution No. 14 Shaw School Botany, St. 
Louis.) 



PLATE 34. CYPRESS {Cupressus., Taxodiuni). 




Monterey Cvpri'ss (Cnprc:ssns Diacrocarpa). 
(Courttsy liotil>l<:iia\\ Pii^e &= Co.) 

Cypress [Taxoiiiurn distichtitn). 

{Photograph by Kdiiuitii J. Davison.) 



Peggy " Cypress Wood. 



CYPRESS. 

{Cupressus ami Taxodium.) 

The name cypress lias been chiefly apph'ed to trees of the gen- 
era Chama^cyparis, Cupressus, and Taxodium. Most species of 
the genus Chamaicyparis are now called cedars (see page 167). 
The Cupressus, while true cypresses and important in Europe, 
have no significance in America. The single species of the 
genus Taxodium is not a cypress, but supplies the " cypress " 
v» ood of American commerce. It is perhaps best to confine 
the name cypress to the true cypress {Cu/^rcssns) and to the 
commercial cypress {Taxodium). 

The true cypress {Cupressus) was once important in the 
East, and is thought by some to have given the gopher wood 
of which the Ark was built." Pliny mentions cypress doors 
good after four hundred years, and a statue good after six 
hundred years. Herodotus and other ancient authors f speak 
of it. Authorities in the middle ages thought that it would 
never decay. The cypress gates of the early St. Peter's, 
removed after one thousand years of service, were found to be 
in perfect condition.:}: Cypress was much prized for mummy- 
cases. Living trees long figured as funeral emblems, and are 
yet planted over graves in Italy and Turkey. § The common 
or evergreen cypress is the chief European species. The eight 
or nine American representatives are of little note save as they 
are sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation. The 
Monterey and Go wan cypresses {Cupressus macrocarpa and 
Cupressus goveniana) are thus employed. There are small 
evergreen scale-like leaves. 



* Funk & Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary, quoting Horace Smith, " Gayeties 
and CIravities," Chapter VII, p. 57. 

f Pliny 16, 214 and 16, 215; Herodotus 4, 16; Virgil, Georgics, 2, 443. 

X Encyclopaedia Britannica, B. 6, p. 745. 

§ Brockhaus, Kon.versations-Lexikon, B. 4, p. 654. 

177 



178 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 



m^ 









The American or Bald C)'press {Taxodimn disticJiuvi) is a 
tree of considerable importance. It grows in the South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, on submerged lands or in deep 
swamps where unusual logging methods are necessitated. The 
seasoned wood resembles white cedar in that it is soft, light, 
and very durable. It has been called by many names. Pieces 
were once called black or white cypress 
according as they sank or floated. All 
dark pieces are now called black cypress. 
The tinted woods of some localities are 
called red or yellow cypress. The name 
bald cypress was caused by the leafless 
appearance of the trees in winter. The 
living trees are subject to a peculiar fung- 
ous disease, causing numerous cavities 
in the w^ood. These so resemble per- 
forations made by small pegs that the 
wood is termed " peggy. " The trouble 
ceases as the trees are cut, and the wood 
is then as durable as that from perfect 
trees. About one third of the standing supply is thus 
affected.'^'' The roots frequently project upward above the 
surface in what are known as cypress knees. The single 
species of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous 
foliage; the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as 
with the tamaracks. 




Bald Cypress ( Taxodium 
dislicliitni). 



* U. S. Forestry Circular No. 19 (Dr. B. E. Fernow, Chief). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF IVOODS. I79 

Cypress, Bald Cypress. Taxodium distichum Rich. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

White Cypress (N. C, S. C, Swamp Cypress (La.). 

Fla., Miss.). Deciduous Cypress (Del., 111., 

Black Cypress (N. C, S. C, Tex). 

Ala., Tex.). Southern Cypress (Ala.). 

Red Cypress (Ga., Miss., La., 

Tex.). 

Locality. 

South Atlantic and Gulf States, Maryland through Florida to 
Texas, Mississippi Valley from southern Illinois to the Gulf. 
Occasional in North, as New York. Forms forests in swamps 
and barrens.* 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to ten 
feet in diameter. Knees on roots often hollow in old age. 
Flat deciduous leaves. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight 
grain. Frequently pitted by disease. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, not strong, durable. Green wood often very heavy. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Carpentry, construction, cooperage, railway ties. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
29 (U, S. Forestry Div.).f 
28. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

1,290,000 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.),f 

1,460,000. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

7900 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).f 
9600. 

Remarks. 

Wood commercially divided into " white " and " black " cypress 
because of differences in age and environment. Fungus dis- 
ease pits much wood, but stops with felling of trees. | 

*See Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol. XXIX, page 157. 
\ See page 6. 

J Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School Botany, St. Louis; also U. S, 
Forestry Circular No. 19. 



REDWOOD. 

{Sequoia. ) 

These trees grow only in California. There are two 
species: the common redwood (5. scuipe^'virens)^ noted for its 
lumber, and the big or mammoth tree (5. wasJiingtoniana), so 
remarkable for its great size. Geological evidence indicates 
that the genus was once represented by many species on both 
hemispheres, but that all disappeared during the glacial period 
save the two here noted. 

The common redwood is a large and perfect tree and 
supplies a wood suggesting good red cedar. This soft, light, 
clean, reddish-brown, durable wood works and stands well, is 
not easily inflamed, and is obtainable in large-sized pieces for 
use in large constructions. Coffins and shingles are made of 
it, also large quantities of wooden water-pipe employed for 
irrigation purposes. The average wood is seen in cheaper 
forms of indoor finish, while occasional pieces, in which the 
grain is distorted, are classed as curly redwood and used for 
costlier decorations. 

Big or Mammoth trees have been measured up to three 
hundred and twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in 
diameter (Sargent). They are thus the largest of American 
trees and the most massive, although not the tallest, of all 
trees. Specimens twenty-five feet in diameter have been 
estimated as thirty-six hundred years old, and it is thought 
that under favorable conditions trees can survive for five 
thousand years, or even longer. The oldest trees are sound 
throughout. The almost incombustible bark is nearly two 
feet in thickness; the wood is brittle, but otherwise resembles 
ordinary redwood. It should be noted that large exceptional 
trees are all known, and that most of them have names such 
as the "Pride of the Forest," the "Grizzly Giant," and the 
" U. S. Grant." These, with younger trees, are grouped in 

I So 



PLATE 35. REDWOOD {Sequoia) 







.%^. 



^%^ 



-^' 



Redwood Foliiige {Secjiioia 
semperT'irens ) . 





C'liuiit KedwdOil Tree {S. ivasflingloiViVia). (Courtesy PouKeday, Page &• Co.) 

"Curly" Redwood Wood idisst'ction). 



EXOGENOUS SERIES— NEEDLELEAF tVOODS. i8l 

the Mariposa, Calavaras, and other groves. Many sawmills 
are unfortunately engaged on the trees of this species. 

Redwood trees may be known by their size, locality, and 
fine, dull, evergreen foliage. The name Sequoia is that of an 
Indian chief. 

References : '< The Big Trees of California," U. S. Forestry Division Bulletin 
No. 28. Also Mr. Jas. Horsburgh, Jr., Southern Pacific Railway. 



l82 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Redwood. Sequoia scmpervirens Endl. 

Nomenclature, (Sudworth. ) 

Redwood (local and common Sequoia, California Redwood, 

name). Coast Redwood (local). 

Locality. 

Central and North Pacific coast region. 

Features of Tree. 

Two hundred to three hundred feet in height, sometimes higher, 
six to eight and sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Straight, 
symmetrical trunk. Low branches rare. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 

Thick heartwood red, changing to reddish brown when seasoned; 
Thin sapwood nearly white. Coarse, straight grain, compact 
structure, very thick bark. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, not strong, soft, very durable, not resinous, easily 
worked. Does not burn easily, receives polish. 

Representative Uses of Wood, 

Timber, shingles, flumes, fence-posts, cofllns, railway ties, 
water-pipes, interior decoration. Bark made into souvenirs. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
26 (census figure, see page 6). 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

790,000 (average of 8 Humboldt specimens), f 
1,140,000 (average of 7 Humboldt specimens). f 
960,000 (census figure, see page 6). 

Modulus of Rupture, 

4920 (average of 9 Humboldt specimens). f 
7138 (average of 7 Mendocino specimens), j- 
8400 (census figure, see page 6). 

Remarks, 

Pacific coast chief construction wood. Curled or distorted grain 
adds value for cabinet purposes. 



The Big or Mammoth Tree or Giant Redwood (.S", washing- 
ioniana Sudworth and -S", gigatUea) is the largest tree known. The 
wood resembling that of S. sempervirens is used locally, see U, S, 
Forestry Bui, No, 28, 

f Professor Frank Soule, Trans. Am. Inst. M, E., California Meeting, 1899, 
There arc several trees of tliis species near New York City, 



PLATE 3G. l':Nr)OGP:N(UJS STRUCTURE IN WOOD. 




A scctiuu Ihrougli .i I'alin I'ree. 




ENDOGENOUS TREES. 

{Monocotyledons .^ 

Endogenous trees are those that increase from within. 
Their elemental parts are similar to those of exogenous trees 
but the arrangement of such parts differs in that the newer 
fibres of the Endogen intermingle with the old, pass through 
a pith-like tissue, and cause cross-surfaces to appear as dotted, 
whereas the new material of the Exogen is deposited altogether 
and upon the outside of the old, their sections exhibiting rings 
or layers. The Palms, Yuccas, Cornstalks, and Bamboos are 
of the endogens. Bark is unusual on trees of the series. 

Endogenous woods are hardest and most compact at cir- 
cumferences. The stems of palm trees are solid, but those of 
some of the grasses, particularly those that grow quickly, are 
hollow.* The tube or canal, when existing, is due to sluggish- 
ness on the part of the central pith, which, developing more 
slowly than the outer tissues, finally ruptures and disappears 
at the center. There are also more or less permanent joints 
or knots, t such as are made familiar by the canes and bam- 
boos. The stems of Endogenous plants are seldom cut up 
into lumber, but are used in segments, or else entire, as for 
troughs or piles. t- The use of Palm wood must be more or less 

* The Bamboo, which is a grass, is hollow, while the cornstalk, which is also 
a grass, is not. 

t The knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of exogens. Spaces between 
the nodes, known as internodes, mark the annual lengthening. Knots are places 
whence leaves have emerged. 

X Palm in marine work appears to repel the teredoe. This is probably because 
of the porous character of the wood. See "Marine Wood Borers," Trans. Am. 
Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pages 195 and 204. 

183 



1 84 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

limited to the neighborhoods in which such trees flourish, but 
it is probable that the Bamboo can be much more generally 
employed. 

The Endogens include numerous families and many thou- 
sand species.* The grasses, including wheat, rye, and Indian 
corn at the North and sugar-cane and bamboo at the South, 
belong to this group. Most Endogens are herbs; compara- 
tively few furnish material for structural purposes. The Palms, 
including the palmetto, rattans, cane palms, and others, the 
Yucca, including the Joshua tree, Spanish bayonet, and others, 
and the Bamboos, representatives of the grasses, are thus use- 
ful. Endogens are also known as Monocotyledons. 

*Bastiii (" College Botany," p. 379) divides into about fifty natural orders dis- 
tributed among seven divisions. Warming ("Systematic Botany," pp. 277, 278) 
■divides into seven families corresponding with Bastin's seven divisions. A. Gray 
divides into twenty-one orders or families. Coulter ("Plants," p. 237) divides 
into forty families, including twenty thousand species. 



PLATE 37. PALM {PalmaceiE) 




Cabh;ige Palmetto. Washington Palm (untnmmed). Washington I'alm 

{Courtesy N. C. Geological Survey.) \Messrs. Doubleday, Puge tr- Co.). (trimmed). 

(Los A ngeles Chamber Commerce.) 



PALM. 



PALMACE.'E. 



This is one of the largest and most important orders of 
plants known toman. The one thousand^ or more known 
species are distributed over the tropical and semitropical 
regions of the entire world. Only a few species, including the 
palmettos of the Gulf States and the fan palms of Calfornia, 
are native in the United States. 

Palms have tall, columnar trunks without branches, but 
with crowns of large leaves at their summits. Their forms 
and proportions are often magnificent. The wood is soft, 
light, more or less porous, difficult to work, and not strong. 
The shapes of trunks sometimes cause them to be locally- 
prized for piles, while the porous qualities of the wood are 
such as to repel teredo t There are many by-products, as 
fruit, nuts, oil, etc. The rattan or cane palms of India and 
the Malayan Islands sometimes grow to a height of two 
hundred feet and are imported into Europe and America for 
chair-bottoms and the like. 

Sud worth X enumerates the following as attaining to the 
dignity of trees in the United States : 

Cabbage Palmetto {Sabal palmetto). Sargent Palm iPsetidopJianix sargentii). 

Silvertop Palmetto ( Thrinax microcarpa^. Fanleaf Palm ( WasJiingtoma filifera). 

Silktop Palmetto {Thrinax parviflora). Royal Palm {Oredoya regia). 
Mexican palmetto {Sabal mexicatia). 

* Coulter, "Plants," p. 241. 

f "Marine Wood Borers," Snow Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pp. 195 
and 204. 

X "Check List," U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 17. 

A. L. Wallace, "Palm Trees of Amazon and their Uses," London, 1853. 

185 



1 86 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD. 

Cabbage Palmetto. Sahal palmetto Walt. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth. ) 

Cabbage Palmetto, Palmetto Cabbage Tree (Miss., Fla.). 
(N. C, S. C). Tree Palmetto (La.). 

Locality. 

Southern Atlantic and Gulf coast, United States (intermittently). 

Features of Tree. 

Medium size, thirty to forty feet in height, one to two and one- 
half feet in diameter. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light-brown tint. Characteristic coarse fibre arrangement. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, difficult to work; durable in marine work; repels 
teredo. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Piles, wharf-work, etc. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

27. 

Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Scrubbing-brush "bristles" are made in considerale quantities 
in Florida from the sheath of young leaves. The inner part 
of young plants is edible. It is said (N. Y. Evening Post, 
April 20, 1 901) that paper is being manufactured from the 
leaves of the Palmetto. 



ENDOGENOUS SERIES. 187 

Washington Palm. j Washing t oti ia fiUf era Wendl. 
Fanleaf Palm. | Neowashingloma filamentosa Wendl. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Fanleaf Palm, Washington California Fan Palm, Arizona 
Palm, Desert Palm (Cal.). Palm, Wild Date (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features of Tree. 

Thirty to sixty feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in 
diameter. Fan-shaped leaves rising yet farther in tuft from 
summit; edible fruit. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Light greenish yellow to dark red, conspicuous grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood.- 

Soft, light, shrinks in seasoning, difficult to work. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 
Ornamental purposes. 

^^'eight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

32. 
Modulus of Elasticity. 

Modulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The largest of the United States Palms. Much used for land- 
scape effects in California. 



YUCCA. 
{Yucca.) 

The eighteen species constituting this genus are all Ameri- 
can. Twelve of them are found in the southern and western 
United States, and eight of these are mentioned by Sudworth * 
as arborescent. Several of the Yuccas are cultivated because 
of their beautiful lily-like flowers. The Tree Yucca or Joshua- 
tree affords wood. 

This last named species produces a short stout trunk, 
peculiar in that it is covered by thick bark. The soft, spongy 
wood is sometimes sawn into lumber, made into souvenirs and 
lately into artificial limbs. An attempt to manufacture it into 
paper-pulp t is said to have failed because of high cost made 
necessary by the remote position of the industry. Hough 
notes X that trees are sometimes attacked by borers that im- 
pregnate the walls of their tunnels with hardening antiseptic 
solutions, causing such parts to remain after the disappearance 
of the others. And that these parts are described as " petrified 
wood," and are prized for fuel since they burn with "little 
smoke and great heat." 

The eight species noted by Sudworth are as follows: 

Yucca arborescens (Joshua tree). Yucca aloifolia (Aloe-leaf Yuccai 

Yucca treculeaua (Spanish Bayonet). Yucca macrocarpa (Broadfruit Yucca). 

Yucca gloriosa (Spanish Dagger). Yucca brevifolia (Schott Yucca). 

Yucca mohavensis (Mohave Yucca). Yucca constricta. 

* "Check List," U. S. Forestry Bui. No. 17. 

f South of Mohave Desert in California about twenty years ago. 

^ Anaerican Woods, Part VII, p. 57. 



PLATE 38- YUCCA {^Vucca ardori'scens). 




By courtesy of M, 



'liay, J'a^t' ir^ Co. F/ii 




Wunil of Yucca, 



ENDOGENOUS SERIES. 189 

Joshua-tree, Yucca. -\ ]'!"'"'' ^'-^ore^ccnsT.rr. 
\ 1 ncca orevi/olid An gel in. 

Nomenclature. (Sudworth.) 

Joshua-tree, I'he Joshua, Yucca Cactus (Cal.). 

Yucca, Yucca Tree (Utah, 
Ariz., N. M., Cal.). 

Locality. 

Central and lower Rocky Mountain region. 

Features of Tree. 

Twenty-five to forty feet in height, six inches to two feet in 
diameter. 
Thick outer cover or bark.* 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood, 
Light brown to white, porous grain. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 

Light, soft, spongy, flexible in thin sheets. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Paper-pulp, souvenirs, boxes, book covers, and other small ' 
articles. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 

INIodulus of Elasticity. 

INIodulus of Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Bark is unusual in the case of endogenous trees. Arborescens 
refers to fact that it is a tree. 

* See paragraph Bark, Endogenous Trees, page 55. 



BAMBOO. 

{Bambusie,) 

The bamboos are giant members of a group (grasses *), the 
other individuals of which, while widely distributed, valued, 
and very numerous, are for the most part insignificant as to 
bulk, height, and structural characteristics. The canes and 
bamboos are exceptions in that they form what may well be 
called forests, and produce woods used in construction. The 
Bamboos {BajnbuscE), including about twenty genera and two 
hundred species, t are distributed unevenly over the tropical 
zone. 

The bamboo plant with its numerous stalks and delicate 
foliage resembles a plume of giant ostrich feathers. The stems 
attain heights of seventy feet and diameters of four and six 
inches (see Fig. 3 plate). Knots or joints are at first close 
together, but are later one or two feet apart. Growth is sur- 
prisingly rapid. A Philippine specimen, which when meas- 
ured was eighteen inches high and four inches in diameter, 
grew two feet in three days.:}: Florida stalks have reached 
heights of seventy-two feet in a single season. § The plants 
are apt to take complete possession of the ground on which 
they grow. Those who use bamboo value it highly. It is 
employed entire or else split into segments. Some can be 



* Grasses, "one of the largest and probably one of the most useful groups of 
plants. . . . If grass.like sedges be associated. . . . there are about 6000 species, 
representing nearly one third of the Monocotyledons." (Coulter, " Plants," pp. 240- 
241.) The various pasture-grasses, cereals, and sugar-canes are here included. 
Bamboos and canes are distinct in that thev afford structural materials. 

f B. E. Fernow notes (p. 29, Forestry Bulletin No. 11): "In addition to the genus 
bambusa, the genera Arundinaria, Arundo, Dendrocalamus, and Guadua are the 
most important." All of tribe Bambusae. 

J Frederic H. Sawyer. Memb. Inst. C. E., "Inhabitants of the Philippines," 
Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1900 (p. 5). 

§ Page 29, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 1 1. 

190 



PLATE 39. BAMBOO {Bambuste). 




Bamboo Grove, Philippines. 

By the courtesy of ike Ufaniia P.O. Forestry Bureau, 




Bamboo Cirove, China. 
Bamboo sections, 5^ inches diameter. 



ENDOGENOUS SERIES. 191 

opened and flattened into rough boards, splitting everywhere 
but holding together.* For vessels it is cut off with reference 
to the partitions. The subject is thus summarized by Dr. 
Martin :t "The Chinese make masts of it for their small 
junks, and twist it into cables for their larger ones. They 
weave it into matting for floors, and make it into rafters for 
roofs. They sit at table on bamboo chairs, eat shoots of 
bamboo with bamboo chop-sticks. The musician blows a 
bamboo flute, and the watchman beats a bamboo rattle. 
Criminals are confined in a bamboo cage and beaten with 
bamboo rods. Paper is made of bamboo fibre, and pencils of 
a joint of bamboo in which is inserted a tuft of goat's hair." 

The manipulation of this valuable material is not yet 
understood in America. Prof. Johnson notes X that the wood 
of "bamboo is just twice as strong as the strongest wood in 
cross-bending, weight for weight, when the wood is taken in 
specimens, with a square and solid cross-section." Dr. Fernow 
considers the bamboo worthy of extensive trial throughout the 
Gulf region. § 

* Prof. Isaac F. Holton, " New Granada," Harper Bros., New York, 1857 (p. 
109). 

t "Cycle of Cathay," Fleming H. Revell Co., 1899 (p. 172). 

J Materials of Construction, 1897, p. 689. 

§ Henry G. Hubbard, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11, A. B. Mitford. 

"The Bamboo Garden," Macmillan, 1896. Kurz, "Bamboo and its Uses," 
Calcutta, 1876. 

"Bamboo as substitute for Wood," Fernow, p. 203, 6th Annual Report. 



192 THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF IVOOD 

Bamboo. Bambusa vulgaris. 

Nomenclature. 

Bamboo local and common name. 

Locality. 

Florida (acclimated). 

Features of Tree. 

Seventy-five feet in height, four to six inches in diameter. 
Delicate branches and leaves. Greenish glazed jointed stem, 
extensive roots. 

Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood. 

Yellowish brown, conspicuously fibrous, moderately thin walls, 
central canal broken by joints. 

Structural Qualities of Wood. 
Light, elastic, works easily. 

Representative Uses of Wood. 

Posts, poles, utensils, troughs, pipes, roofing, paper. 

Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot. 
Variable. 

Modulus of Elasticity, 

2,380,000 (Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 689). 
Modulus of Rupture. 

27,400 (Johnson's " Materials of Construction," p. 689). 
Remarks. 



INDEX. 



A 

PAGE 

A6tes 140, 156 

balsamea 156, I57 

concolor 136, iS^r 159 

grandis 156, 15^ 

magnijica 160 

nobilis 161 

taxifolia 154 

Acacia 77 

False 7^ 

Three-thorned 78 

Acer 40 

dasycarptwi 43 

macrophyllum 45 

negundo 4° 

pseudo.platanus 40, 65 

rubrum 44 

saccharimtm 43 

saccharitm 42 

yEscuhis 96 

Jlava 98 

glabj-a 97 

hippocastanum 96, 97 

octandra 9^ 

Alburiuiin 7 

Algarolja 79 

Alligator- wood 100 

Apple 27 

Apple-tree (Osage) 113 

Arborvitse 168, 171, 172 

Giant 172 

Pacific 175 

Arbutus 108 

menzicsii 108. 1 10 

Artmdinaria IQO 

Arundo 19° 

Ash 27, 29, 33 

American 20 

Black 28, 29, 32, 46 

Blue 31. 33 

Brown 3° 

Cane 29 

Green 27, 33 



PACK 

Ash, Hoop 32 

Mountain 27 

Oregon 34 

Prickly 27 

Red 30 

River • • • • 30 

Second-growth 28 

Swamp 32, 33 

Stinking 46 

Sugar 46 

Water 32, 33, 46 

White 27, 29, 33 

Yellow 27 

Aspen 81 

Large American 83 

Quaking 83 

B 

Balluck 128 

Balm 85 

Balm of Gilead 157 

Fir 157 

Balsam 157 

Canada 157 

He 150 

White 750 

Balsam Fir 136 

Balsam Tree 159 

Bamboo 190, 192 

Ba)iihuS(T 19a 

tnilgaris I q2 

Bass."^ 81 

Basswood 80, 87 

White 87 

Yellow 87 

Bast 87 

Bay Rose 108 

Ba V Tree 109 

California joq 

Bayonet. Spanish 188 

Bay wood 1 20 

Beech 60, 62 

193 



194 



INDEX. 



PAOR 

Beech, Blue 60, 63 

Red 62 

Ridge 62 

Water 63 

Wliiie 62 

Bee-tree 81, 87 

Bciiila 68 

ic-iita 74, I" 

iiitea 73 

nii^ra 7^ 

papyrifera 71 

popiilifolia 70 

Big-bud 54 

Big Tree 161, 180, 182 

California 180, 182 

Birch 68, 72 

Black 72, 74 

Blue 72 

Canoe 7 ^ 

Cherry Hi 

Gray 70, 73 

Large White 71 

Mahogany 74 

Oldfield 70 

Paper 7^ 

Poplar-leaved 7° 

Poverty 7^ 

Red 72 

River 72, 74 

Silver 71, 73 

Small White 7° 

Swamp 73 

Sweet .74, III 

Water 72 

White 70, 71 

Bitternut 53 

Blisted 100 

Blue Lin 86 

Boc 60 

Bodark ii3 

Bodock 113 

Bois Puant 9^ 

Bois D'Arc m, ii3 

Bok 60 

P.oleau 71 

Botanical Name i 

Bow-wood 1 13 

Boxeiuer 46 

P>oxwood 103, 106, 108 

New England 106 

Box, False (Dogwood) 106 

BROADLEAF TREES 10 

WOODS 10 

Buche 60 

Buckeve 96, 97> 9^ 

Big'. 98 

Fetid 97 

Large 98 



Buckeye, Ohio 97 

Stinking 97 

Sweet 98 

Yellow 98 

BuUnut 54 

BiinwHa 61 

tenax 61 

lycioides 61 

Burl 47 

Buttonball 66, 67 

Buttonball tree 66. 67 

Buttonwood 66, 67 



Can<jew< lod 82 

Cnrpnius 60 

caroliniiuia 60, 63 

Carya 51 

alha 52 

olh'ccfonnis 55 

porciiia 53 

tontentosa 54 

Ccistaiwa 56 

dent at a 58 

pttmila .56, 59 

vesca 58 

Vfsca var. americana 5^ 

vulgaris var. aviericana 5^ 

Castanopsis chrysopylla 57^59 

Catalpa 90, 91, 92 

Catalpa 90 

bignonioidi's 92 

catalpa 92 

spcciosa 91 

Catawba 92 

Catawba Tree 92 

Cajeput 109 

Calico Bush 108 

Cedar 167, 169, 170, 171, 172 

Atlantic Red 17 1 

Bastard 176 

California Poet 177 

California White 177 

Canoe 168, 172 

Cuban 122 

Giant 172 

Giant Red 172 

Incense 168, 176 

Lebanon 167 

Mexican 122 

Oregon 1 74 

Pacific Red 172 

Pencil 169 

Port Orford 168, 174 

Post 173, 176 

Red 167. 168, 169, 172. 176 

Southern 169 

Spanish 1 19. 122, 168 

Swamp 173 



INDEX. 



195 



Cedar, Western 170, 172 

\\'estern Red 169, 170 

White.. 167, 168, i-ji, 173, 174. 176 
Yellow 168, 170, 175 

Cedrela ng 

atistralis 122 

odorata 122 

ioona 122 

Cedrus 1 67 

libani 167 

Cell Structures 2 

Census U. S. Experiments 4 

Cercocarpus brevijiorus nS 

ledlfoiius 1x8 

parvtfolius ug 

Chamoecyparis 167, 177 



lawsoniana 168 



nootkatensis i 



174 



75 



175 

173 

16 



nutkiensis 168 

thyoides igg, 

Chene etoile 

Chene Vert 2 

Cherry m' „; 

Black. 

Choke 

Rum. , 



Whisky I 



114 
114 
114 



Wild. 



14 
III, 114 

Wild Black Ill, 114 

Cherry Birch 74 

Chestnut 56. 58 

Horse Chestnut g6. 97 

Chinquapin c6. ca 

Cis^ar-tree 91, 92 

Indian 02 

Cladrastis liiti-a 27 

Cliflonia t)ionophyna 6 1 

Coefficients t 

Conifers n, j2g 

Coniferous Trees , 120 

Coniferous Woods 129 

Confederate Pintree , 78 

Cornel ' 106 

Flowering 106 

Cornus 103 

florida 106 

Cotton Tree 84 

Cottonwood 80, 84, 85 

Balm 85 

Balsam 85 

Big .'.'.'.'' 84 

Black 85 

Broadleaved 84 

Yellow 84 

Crab Apple 27 

Cross-section 8 

Cucumber 86 

Cucumber-tree 80, 82, 86 

Cupressits 177 



Ctipressus goveniana 

macrocarpa 

Cypress 167, 177 

American 

Bald ■.V.V178. 

Black .; 

Deciduous 

Gowan 

Monterey 

Red /....*..'..".".".* 

Southern 

Swamp 

White i!!!!^!"!!!"! 

D 

Dagger, Spanish , 

Dammara aiistralis 146 

Date Plum * 

Date, Wild '.*.'.".*.!.'.'." 

Deal .'.145, 

Deciduous Trees 

Deciduous Woods 

DendrocalaiHiis 

DICOTYLEDONS .'.*.'.'.'.' .' 

Diospyros 

virgiiiiana m 

Dogwood xc 

Flowering 

Douglas Tree 

Duramen 



PAGE 

177 
177 
179 
179 
179 
179 
179 
177 
177 
179 
179 

179 
179 



147 

112 

187 

149 
7 
7 

190 

6,7 
m 
112 
106 
106 
155 
7 



Ebony xii 

EbenaceiB xii 

El'l^---. '• "■.■.■. '35; 36,39 

American -jg 

Cliff .'!!."."]; 37 

Cork *. . 37, 39 

Hickory 77 

Moose T 8 

Mountain 

Red .'.'.. 

Redwooded 

Rock 

Slippery 

Small-leaved 39 

Wahoo 

W\ater 

White .■'.' 

Wing 



■• 39 
38,39 
.. 38 



37. 



38 
38 



39 

36, 39 

36, 37 

39 

Wmged 3g 

S^^^ ■ 39 

Encena -, . 



ENDOGENS 6 18T 

ENDOGENOUS TREES e' 18^ 

ENDOGENOUS WOODS. ... 6, 183 

Evergreen 9, 129 

Evergreen Trees 9, 129 



196 



INDEX. 



Evergreen Woods 9, 129 

Euialyptus 123 

colossea . . 126 

diversicolor 123, 126 

globulus 123, 128 

gomphocepluxla 123, 127 

Eucalyptus niarginata 123, 12 "5 

EXOGENS 7 

EXOGENOUS TREES 7 

EXOGENOUS WOODS 7 

Exothea paniculata 61 



Fagus 60 

atropunicea 62 

ferrugiHea ... 62 

False Box 106 

Feather-cone i6i 

Fever Tree 128 

Fibre 2 

Ficus sycamorus 65 

Fig-tree 65 

Fir 149, 155, 156 

Balsam 136, 156, 157, 159 

California Red 160 

California Red-bark 160 

California White 159 

Colorado White , 159 

Concolor White 159 

Dantzic 145 

Douglas 155 

Feather-cone 161 

Golden 160 

Great Silver 158 

Lowland 158 

Magnificent 160 

Memel 145 

Noble 161 

Noble Red . .. , 161 

Noble Silver 161 

Northern 145 

Oregon White 158 

Prince Albert's 163 

Red 155, 160, 161 

Rigi 145 

Scots 145 

Scottish 145 

Shasta 160 

Silver 156, 158, 159 

Stettin 145 

Swedish 145 

Tree 157 

Western Hemlock 163 

Western White 158 

White 156, 158, 159 

Yellow 158 

Forestry Division Experiments... 4 

Fraxinus 27 



PAGB 

Fraxinus. arnericana 29 

lanceolata 27, 33 

nigra 32 

oregona 34 

puhescens 30 

pennsylvanica 30 

quadrangulata 31 

sambucifolia 32 

""ridis 33 

G 

Gallic Acid 12 

Generic Name i 

Gleditsia 75 

triacanthos 75, 78 

Gopher Wood 27 

Gum 99, 100, lot 

Black loi, 160 

Blue 123, 128 

Cotton 102 

Kauri 147 

Mahogany 125 

Red 100 

Satin loo 

Sour 99, loi, 102 

Star-leaved 100 

Sweet 99, 100 

Tree 100, 123 

Tupelo loi. 102 

Walnut 100 

White 126, 127 

Yellow (Gum) Tree 10 1 

Great Laurel 106, 108 

Greenheart 115, 117 

Guajacutu 103 

arhorium 107 

officinale 104, 107 

sanciuvi 61, 104, 107 

Guadua 1 90 

H 

Hackmatack 165, 166 

Hardhack 64 

Hardshell r- 

HARDWOODS 9, 10 

Heartvvood 7 

He Balsam 150 

Hedge 113 

Hedge-plant. . . 113 

Hemlock 149, 162. 163 

Carolina 163 

Soutliern 163 

Western 163 

Hicoria r\ 

alba ^^ 

glabra r^ 

ovata c 2 



INDEX. 



197 



PAGE 

Hicoria pecan 55 

Hickory 51, 54 

Black 53-54 

Brown 53 

Common 54 

Hardbark 54 

(Hickory Nuts) 51, 52, 54 

Hognut 54 

Mockernut 54 

Pecan 55 

Pignut 53 

Red 53, 54 

Scalybark 52 

Second-growth 51 

Shagbark 52 

Shellbark 52 

Switch-bud 53 

Upland 52 

^Vliite 52. 53. 54 

Holly 103, 105 

American 105 

White 105 

Honey 78 

Honey Pod 79 

Honey Shucks 78 

Hornbeam 60, 63, 64 

Horse Chestnut 96, 97 

I 

Ilex 103 

opaca 103, 105 

aqitifolium 103 

Indian Cigar Tree 92 

Indian-bean 91, 92 

Iron-bark , 123 

Iron wood 60, 63, 64, 79. 107 

J 

Jarrah 123, 125 

Joshua (The) 189 

Tree 188, 189 

yutrlans 47 

cinerea 481 5° 

nigra 49 

regia 47. 49 

Juniper 165, 167, 169, 170, 176 

Red 169 

Western 170 

Juniper Bush 169 

yuniperus 167 

harhadensis 167, 168, 169 

ocddentalis 167, 168, 170 

scopitlorii77i 167, 168, 169 

virginiana 167, lt)8, 169 

K 

Kalmia lalifoUa 108 

Karri 123, 126 



PAGE 

Kauri Gum 146, 147 

Kauri Pine 146, 147 

L 

Lanza Experiments 5 

Larch 161, 164, 165 

American 165 

American Western 166 

Black 165 

Great Western 166 

Red 165 

Tamarack 166 

Western 166 

Larix 164 

americana 164, 165 

/aj-icina 165 

ocddentalis 164, 166 

Laurel 106, 108, 109, no 

Big 108 

California 109 

Great 106, 108 

Madrona 108, 1 10 

Mountain 108, 109 

Laurelvvood no 

Lazlett Experiments 5 

Leverwood 64 

Libocedrtts 167, 168 

decurrens 168, 1 76 

Lignumvita; 103, 107 

Lime 81 

Lime Tree 81, 87 

Black 87 

Smooth-leaved 87 

Linn 87 

Lin, Black 86 

Lind 81 

White 87 

Linden 81, 87 

American 87 

Liriodendron 80 

tiilipifera 80, 82 

Liquidamber 99, 100 

Liquidamber 99 

styracijlua 99, 100 

Locust 75, 77, 78 

Black 75, 77. 78 

Green 77 

Honey 75. 77> 78, 79 

Honey Shucks 78 

Pea Flower 77 

Post 77 

Red 77 

Screw Pod 76 

Sweet 78 

Thorn 78 

Thorny 78 

White 77 

j Yellow "j-j 



INDEX. 



M 

PAGE 

Madura 1 1 1 

luirantiaca ill, 1 13 

ISIadeira 120 

Madrona loS, 1 10 

Madrone Tree 110 

Madiove no 

Magnolia 108 

Mountain 86 

Magnolia 80, 108 

grandiflora 108 

acuminata 86 

Mahogany....: 118, 120 

African ii«. 120 

American 118, 120 

Cuban..,. 118, 120 

Honduras 118, 120 

Indian 1 18 

Mexican 118, 120 

Mountain 74, 118 

San Domingan 118, 120 

Spanish 118, 120 

White 50, 119, 121 

Mammoth Trees 180, 1 82 

Manzanita no 

Maple 40, 45 

Ash-leaved 46 

Bird's-eye 40, 42 

Black 42 

Blister 40, 42 

Broad-leaved 45 

Curly 40, 42. 43, 44 

Cut-leaved 46 

Hard 42 

(Maple Keys). ... « 41 

Negundo 4i> 46 

Oregon 45 

Red 44 

Red River 46 

River 43 

Rock 42 

Silver 43 

Soft 43, 4+ 

Swamp 43-4+ 

Sugar (Sugar Maple) 42 

(Maple Sugar). 41, 42, 43. 44, 46, 50 

Water 43-44 

White 43, 44 

Three leaved 46 

Medullary Rays 8 

Merisier 73 

Mesquite 75, 79 

Rouge 73 

Mockernut 54 

Mock Orange 113 

Modulii 3 

MONOCOTYLEDONS 6, 185 

Moms 93 

alba 93 



Alorus, 7iigra 93 

rubra 93, 95 

Mulberry 93, 95 

Black 93, 95 

Red 93. 95 

Russian 93 

White 93 

Mulberry-tree, Virginia 95 

Murier Sauvage 95 

Myrtle Tree 109 



N 



Naval Stores 132 

Nectanara , . . 115 

rodiali 115, 117 

Needleleaf Conifers 9, 129 

Trees 9, 129 

Woods 9, 129 

Nigunao aceroides 46 

Neoiiiashingtonia filament osa 187 

Noble Silver Fir 161 

Nyssa 99 

aquatica 102 

sylvatica 99, loi 



O 



Oak II 

African 116 

Basket 14 

Black 12. 19, 22 

Box 16 

Box White i6 

Brash 16 

British 11, 26 

12, 17 



California Live 12, 24 

California Post 18 

Canyon 25 

Canyon Live iK, 

Chene etoile 16 

Chene Vert 23 

Chestnut 12, 15, 26 

Coast Live 24 

Common 26 

Cow i2, 14 

Dantzic 26 

Durmast 26 

Dyer's. ... 22 

Encina 24 

English 11,26 

Evergreen 24 

Highland 25 

Indian 115, 116 

Iron 16, 25 

Live II. 12, 23, 24. 25 

Maul 25 

Mossycup 17 



INDEX. 



199 



Oak, I\Ioss3'cup White 17 

Mountain 15 

Oregon Wiiite 18 

Overcup 16, 17 

Pacific Post 12, 18 

Pin 12, 20 

Post 12, 16 

Quercitron 22 

Red 12, 19, 21, 26 

Rigi 26 

Rock 15 

Rock Chestnut 15 

Scrub 17 

Spanish 12, 19, 21 

Spotted 22 

Stave 13 

Swamp 20 

Swamp Chestnut 14, 15 

Swamp Spanish 20 

Swamp White 14 

Tanbark 15,22 

Water 20 

Water Spanish 20 

Western Wliite 18 

White II, 12, 13, 16, 18 

Valparaiso . 25 

Yellow 12, 22 

Yellowbark . 22 

Oil Nut 50 

Oldficldia africana 115,116 

Olive California 109 

Olivetree 102 

Wild 102 

Olncya terota 61 

Orange. Mock I13 

Oreodaphne 109 

Oredoya rcgia 185 

Osage Ill, 113 

Osage Apple Tree 113 

Osage Orange iii, 113 

Ostrya 60 

virginiana 60, 64 



Palm 1S5 

California Fan 187 

Desert 187 

Fanleaf 185, 187 

Royal 185 

Sargent 185 

Washington 187 

Palmacea 181; 

Palmetto 186 

Cabbage 1S5, 186 

Mexican 185 

Silvertop , 185 

Silktop 18c; 

Tree 1S6 



Papyrus 

Peaflower (Locust) 

Pear 

Wild ; 

Pecan 

Nut 

Tree 

Pecanier. 

Pepperidge 

Persimmon 1 11, 

Black 

Mexican 

Picca 148, 

alba 148, 

canadensis 

excelsa 

engebnanni 148. 

;/, art ana 

nig7-a 148, 

rtidt'jts 

sitchcnsis 

Pignut 

Pi'ie 130, 135, 149. 

Alaska 

Bastard 139, 141, 

i^'g 136. 

Black 141, 

Black Norwav 

Black Slash..' ' 

Blister 

Brown 

Bull 135, 140, 141. 

Canadian Red 

Carolina 

Common Yellow 

Cornstalk 

Cowdie 

Cuban 132, 133. 

Dantzic 133. 

Douglas 154. 

European 1^3, 

Fat 13'S, 

Finger Cone 

Fir' 

Florida , 

Florida Longlcaved. 

Florida Yellow 

Foothills Yellow 

Foxtail 

Frankincense 

Georgia 

Georgia Heart 

Georgia Longleaved 

Georgia Pitch 

Georgia Yellow 

Gigantic 

Ginger 

Cireat Sugar 

Hard 133. 139. 140. 143. 



60 
77 

^7 

lOI 

55 
55 
55 
51 

lOI 

112 

106 
106 
149 
151 
151 
148 

152 
150 
150 
150 
155 
53 
151 
163 
159 
142 

144 
144 
141 

157 
13S 
143 
f43 
140 
140 
141 
147 
139 
145 
155 
145 
144 
137 
157 
138 

i3« 
138 
142 
141 
141 
138 
138 
1^,8 
138 
138 
136 

174- 
136 
144 



INDEX. 



Pine, Heart 

Heavy 

Heavy-woodeil 

Indian 

Kauri 146, 

Little Sugar 136, 

Loblolly 133, 

Longleaf. 133, 138, 

Longleaved 142. 

Lungleaved Pitch 

Longleaved Yellow 

Longshat 

Longsliucks 

Longstraw 138, 

Meadov/ 139, 

Montana Black 

Mountain 

Mountain Weymouth 

Northern 133, 134, 

North Carolina 

North Carolina Pitch 

North Carolina Yellow 

Norway 

Oldfield 140, 

Oregon 154, 

Pitch... 133, 138, 139, 140, 142, 

Poor 

Puget Sound 

Pumpkin 

Red 142, I43> 

Rigid 

Rocky Mountain White 

Sap 141, 

Scotch 

Shade 

She 

She Pitch 

Shortleaf 133. 140. 

Shortleaved Yellow 

Shortshat 

Silver 

Slash 139, 140, 

Soft 130, 131, 134- 

Southern I33- 

Southern Hard 

St)uthern Heart 

Southern Pitch. 

Southern Yellow 138, 

Spruce 134, 140. 141. 

Swamp I39> 

Texas Longleaved 

Texas Yellow 

Torch 

Turpentine 

Virginia 

Virginia Yellow 

Western Pitch 

Western White 131, 135. 

Western Yellow 



PAGE 

38 



Pine, Weymouth 133, 134 

White 131, 134, 135, 136, 137 

Yellow. 133, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144 

Pintree, Confederate 78 

Finns 130, 149 

echinata 132, 133, 140 

flexilis 131, 135 

hfterophylla 132, 133, 139 

lamberliana 131, 136 

7nitis 132, 140 

vioutiiola 137 

palusiris 132, 133, 138, 139 

ponderosa 142 

resinosa 143 

rigidti 1 44 

stro/'us 131, 134 

sylvestris 145 

l^rda 132, 133, 141 

Piquant armourette 78 

Pith Cavity 7 

Pith Ray 2, 8 

Plane Tree 65, 66 

Platane Cotonier 66 

Plat amis 65 

Old dent alls 65,66 

or lent alts . . . . 65 

7-act'mosa 65, 67 

Plaqueminier 112 

Plum, Date 112 

Poplar 80, 82, 83, 157 

Blue 82 

Hickory 82 

L'lige 83 

Large Toothed 83 

Necklace 84 

Tulip So. 82 

White 83 

Yellow 82 

Popple 82, 83 

Fopiilits 80 

balsaniifcra 157 

dtdt aides 84 

grandidentata 83 

nionilifcra 84 

tremuloides 81, 83 

trichocarpa 85 

Powcohicora 5 ^ 

Possumwood 122 

Prima vera 119, 121 

Prosopis 75 

juli flora 61, 79 

odor at a 76 

Pritnus Ill 

serotina Ill, 1 14. 

Psendophoenix sargeutii 1S5 

Pseudotsiiga 154 

doiiglasii 156 

taxi folia 155 

Pyrus 28 



INDEX. 



Pyrits americana 28 

aticKparia 28 

communis 28 

coronaria 28 

malus 28 

sainbucifolia 28 

vulgaris 28 



Quarter Sawing 9 

Quercitron 22 

Querciis 1 1 

agrifolia 12, 24 

alba 12, 13 

chrysolepis 12, 25 

digitata 12,21 

f alcatel 21 

garrvana 12, i8 

viacrocarpa 12, 17 

michaiixii 12, 14 

iiiino}- 12, 16 

ohttisiloba 16 

paliis(ris 12, 20 

prinus 12, 15 

robur 12 

robiir var. sessilijlora 12, 26 

robur var. peduncidata 12, 26 

rubra. 12, 19 1 

ti>ictoria 22 

velutina 12, 22 

virens 23 

virginiana 12, 23 

tvislizeni 25 

Quince 27 



R 



Radial Section 8 

Red Flower 44 

Redwood 120, 145, 180, 182 

California 182 

Coast 182 

Giant , 182 

Resin 132 

Resin ducts 2, 10 

Rhododendron maximum 106, 108 

Rhus integrifoiia 118 

Robinia 75 

pseudacacia 75, 77 

Rose Bay 108 

Rotary Cut 9 

Rowan Tree 27 



Snbal mexicana 185 

palmetto 185, 186 

Salicylic Acid 74, 88 



PAGE 

Salix 88 

alba 88 

babylonica 88 

caprea 88 

fragilis 88 

nigra 89 

russcliana 88 

Sapwood 7 

Sargent (Prof. C. S.) Experiments. 4 

Sassafac 94 

Sassafrac 94 

Sassafras 93, 94 

Caliofrnia 1 09 

Sassafras 93 

o^cinalc' 94 

sassafras 54 

Savin 169 

Saxifrax 94 

Tree 94 

Schcpfferia friitescens I06 

Sequoia 183 

Sequoia 180 

gigantea 182 

sempervirens 180, 182 

washingtoniana 180, 182 

Shagbark 52 

Sharpless (J. P.) Experiments 4 

Shawnee wood 91 

Shellbark 52 

Sliinglewood 172 

Simmon I12 

Smoking-bean 02 

SOFT WOODS 9, 129 

Sorbiis (see Pyrus) 28 

Soymida 118 

febrifuga ug 

Spanish Bayonet 1 88 

Spanish Dagger 188 

Species 2 

Specific Gravity 4 

Specific Name , 2 

Spice-tree 109 

Spruce. .. .148, 149, 150, 154, 155, 163 

Black 148. 150 

Blue 150 

Bog.... 151 

California Hemlock Spruce 163 

Cat 151 

Cork-barked Douglas 155 

Double 150, 15 1 

Douglas 154, 155 

Engelmann 152 

Great Tideland 153 

He Balsam 150 

Hemlock 163 

Menzies' 153 

Mountain 152 

Red 150 

Single 157 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Spruce, Sitka 1 53 

Skunk 151 

Tideland I53 

Water 150 

Western I53 

White 150, 152 

Stiiikwood loi 

Strength of Woods 3 

Stringy-bark 123 

Sugar 41, 42, 44, 46, 50 

Sugar Tree 42 

Swietenia 118 

makagoni 118, 120 

Sycamore 40, 65, 66, 67 

California 67 

T 

Tabeuia Donnell- Smithii 121 

Tamarack 164, 165, 166 

Western 166 

Tanbark 2 

Tangential Section 8 

Tar 132 

Taxodiwn 177 

distichum 1 78 

Teak 115, 116 

African 115 

Indian 1 15 

Teek . 116 

Tectona grandis 1 15, 116 

Tewart 127 

Thorn 78 

Thrtnax niicrocarpa 185 

pari'i flora 185 

Thuya '. 167 

gigantea 168, 1 72 

occidentalis 168, 171 

plicata 172 

Tiel 81 

Tieltree 81 

Tilia 80 

americmia 87 

heterophylla 87 

Tooart 127 

Toothache Tree 27 

Toxylon pomiferuin 113 

Tracheid 2 

Tsuga . 149, 162 

canadensis 163 

caroUniana 163 

heteroplivlla 163 

Tree .' i 

Tree Yucca 188 

Tuart 123, 127 

Tulip-tree .80, 82 

Tupelo loi, 102 

Large 102 

Swamp 102 

Turpentine 132 



u 

PAGE 

Ulnms 35 

ajuericana 36 

alata 39 

fulva 38 

racemosa 37 

pubescens 38 

Uinbellularia californica 108, 109 

U. S. Census Experiments . 4 

U. S. Forestry Division Experi- 
ments 4 

V 

Veneer 42, 47, 1 19 

Vessel 2 

Vitae 171 

W 

Wahoo 39 

Whahoo 39 

Walnut 47, 49, 50, 52 

Black 47, 49 

English 47, 49 

Persian 47, 49 

Royal 47, 49 

Shagbark 52 

Sweet 52 

White 50 

Washingtoiia filifera 185, 187 

Watertown Arsenal Experiments. . 4 

Weights of Woods 3 

White Mahogany 50 

Whitewood 80, 82, 84, 87 

Wickup 87 

Wild Date 187 

Wild Olive Tree 102 

Wild Pear Tree loi 

Wi How 88, 89 

Bedford 88 

Black 89 

Crack 88 

Goat 88 

Swamp 89 

Weeping 88 

White 88 

X 

Xanthoxyhitn americana 27 

clava-herciilii 27 

Y 

Yellowbark 22 

Yell(nv Gum Tree loi 

Yellovvwood 106. 113. 145 



INDEX. 



203 



Yucca 184, 188, 189 

Aloe-leaf 188 

Broadfruit 188 

Cactus 189 

Mohave 188 

Schott i8g 

Tree 1S8, i8g 

Yucca 188, 189 



PACK 

Yitcca, aloifolia 188 

arborescens 188, 189 

breuifolia 188, 189 

constricta 188 

gloriosa 188 

macrocarpa 188 

mohavensis 188 

Ireculeana , . . 188 



I •• XA l»/VO 






'-'■'mm 



''^1 






m' 






f*. 



'^, 









:J;^^;'^i 



"v'p! 






..,-i^Si 











m.f'j. 






